William Walker - Historical American Heroes

July 16, 2022July 16, 2022

French and Indian War 1754-1763

The French and Indian War is the fourth and last in the series I am reporting on, and it is the most important because it actually accomplished things. First it resulted in expansion of the British colonies to the Mississippi River and included the acquisition of Florida. Real borders were established. The French were defeated and lost their North American colonies, which removed a threat to the British colonies. This war gave combat leadership experience to many colonial officers including George Washington. These officers would be needed soon because England levied new taxes on the colonies to help pay for the war which was a factor that helped precipitate the American Revolutionary War

The French and Indian War was once again the American theater of a European War-the Seven Years’ War. However, most Americans view it as a singular conflict that stands alone. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting monarch, but there had been a King George’s War in the 1740’s during the reign of King George II. King George III was on the throne, so Americans named the war after their opponents.

The French colonial population was only about 75,000, which were mostly in the St. Lawrence River Valley. The British numbered about 1.5 million mainly along the Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to Georgia. Colonists were gradually moving west. Many were moving into the frontier which was dominated by Indians and where both Briton and France claimed ownership.

Most of the fighting during the French and Indian War took place along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. There were few regular army troops in North America at the outset of the war but that changed.

Indians once again took sides in an effort to get a better deal from the expanding Europeans. These alliances tended to be somewhat sporadic depending on the situation. The Iroquois, Catawba and Cherokee were allied with the British colonists. The Wabanaki Confederacy, Algonquin, Lenape. Ottawa, Shawnee, and Wyandot (Huron) were allied with the French colonists.

Although the French and Indian War officially began in 1754, there was always low-level but deadly conflict between French and British colonists and between colonists and Indians. In the years leading up to the war, the conflict was becoming even more intense and more lethal.

The New France governor became concerned about the British incursion and expanding influence in the Ohio Territory so in June 1747 he commissioned a military expedition into the area. The expedition consisted of 200 French troops and 30 Indians and was commanded by Pierre-Joseph Celeron. It was to be a show of force to impress the Indians and to discourage any Indian cooperation with the British.

Celeron’s force moved out in June 1749 and covered about 3,000 miles ending up at the site of present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The expedition was a failure. The Indians told Celeron they owned the Ohio territory and would trade with whoever they wanted to. Celeron even threatened the Miami chief, “Old Briton” but the chief ignored him.

Celeron’s expedition returned in November 1749 but was preceded by the pessimistic information. This information made its way to London and Paris, and both proposed actions to be taken. Massachusetts Governor William Shirley stated that British colonists would not be safe as long as the French were present.

The New France governor died on 17 March 1752 and was temporarily replaced by Charles le Moyne de Longueuil. His permanent replacement, Marquis Duquesne would arrive later,

The continued British activity in the Ohio Territory convinced Longueuil to organize another expedition to punish the Miami tribe for trading with the British. The expedition would consist of 300 men, including French-Canadians and Ottawa warriors. On 21 June 1752 they attacked the trading center at Pickawillany capturing three traders and killing 14 Miami’s including Old Briton who was ritually cannibalized.

The next French move was to build and garrison forts in Ohio Territory in 1753. They established Fort Presque Isle on Lake Erie’s south shore, (near present day Erie, Pennsylvania) and Fort Le Boeuf (near present day Waterford, Pennsylvania). They also drove off or captured British traders. The British response was not adequate to satisfy their Indian allies. Mohawk Chief Hendrick declared that the long friendly relationship with Iroquois Confederacy was broken.

Meanwhile, Virginia Governor Robert Dinwiddie stood to lose a considerable sum of money if the French prevailed. In October 1753 he sent 21-year-old Major George Washington of the Virginia Regiment with a small party to warn the French to leave territory that Virginia claimed. Washington met over dinner with the French commander of Fort Le Boeuf and presented him with a letter from the governor. Of course the French declined to withdraw.

Washington arrived back in Williamsburg on 16 January 1754. In addition to delivering the French refusal to withdraw, Washington provided intelligence on French military preparations. Dinwiddie had already dispatched 40 men commanded by Captain William Trent to the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers to construct a fort before the French could. A French force of 500 men arrived on 16 April. They allowed the small British force to withdraw and even purchased their construction tools to build what became Fort Duquesne.

Portrait of Major George Washington-French and Indian War-1754-1763 — Portrait of Major George Washington

Governor Dinwiddie ordered Washington to take a larger force to assist Trent. Washington learned of Trent’s retreat while enroute but continued toward Fort Duquesne. Twelve Mingo warriors joined Washington increasing his force to 52. Washington ambushed a scouting party of 40 Canadiens (French colonists of New France) on 28 May1754 killing “many.” This clash became known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen and is considered to be the opening battle of the French and Indian War.

Washington withdrew a few miles and established Fort Necessity which was attacked on 3 July. Washington was forced to surrender but negotiated a withdrawal under arms. The French force had included Shawnee, Delaware and Mingo warriors.

News of the two battles soon reached Europe. The British government decided to send an army expedition to “dislodge the French.” Major General Edward Braddock was assigned to command. The French got word of the British plans and Louis XV dispatched six regiments to New France commanded by Baron Dieskau.

A British fleet set out in February 1755 intending to blockade French ports, but the French had acted quickly, and their fleet had already sailed. British Admiral Edward Hawke detached a fast squadron to North America in an unsuccessful attempt to intercept the French.

In a second British naval action Admiral Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on 8 June 1755, capturing her and two troop ships. The British continued harassing French shipping in 1755 by seizing ships and capturing seamen.

Major General Braddock-French and Indian War-1754-1763 — Major General Braddock

Once General Braddock arrived in the colonies, he developed an overly ambitious 1755 campaign. I think he believed he could win the war quickly and easily. Braddock was to attack Fort Duquesne; Governor William Shirley was to fortify Fort Oswego and to attack Fort Niagara; Sir William Johnson was to capture Fort St. Frederic at Crown Point, New York; and Lieutenant Colonel Robert Monckton was to capture Fort Beausejour to the east on the frontier between Nova Scotia and Acadia.

Braddock moved out in June commanding a force of 1,500 Army troops and provincial militia. George Washington was one of his aides. The expedition was a disaster. French regulars, Canadian militia, and Indian warriors ambushed and crushed Braddock’s column. Braddock ordered a retreat, but he was killed and about 1,000 British soldiers were killed or wounded. George Washington and Thomas Gage organized the retreat to Virginia. (Washington and Gage would be opponents in the American Revolutionary War.)

Governor Shirley had no experience commanding large units and was bogged down with logistical problems in his efforts to fortify Fort Oswego. Shirley learned that the French were preparing to attack Oswego when he moved to attack Fort Niagara. He responded by leaving garrisons at Oswego, Fort Bull, and Fort William Henry. He cached supplies at Fort Bull for a future attack on Fort Niagara.

Sir William Johnson was well organized, and the French saw him as a significant threat. In response the French acted to tighten their supply lines in the Ohio valley and sent a senior officer (Baron Dieskau) to take command of the defense of Frontenac and Fort St. Frederic. Dieskau wanted to attack Johnson at Fort Edward, but Johnson had estalished strong defenses.

Johnson and Dieskau clashed on 8 September between Fort Edward and Fort William Henry in the Battle of Lake George. They were nearly evenly matched, about 1,500 men each. This battle was a series of well-placed ambushes, a few frontal attacks, good tactical moves by both sides, and excellent use of three cannon by the British. Casualties were close to even, both about 300 killed or wounded. Baron Dieskau was severely wounded personally leading an assault.

Tactically, the British carried the day in this hard-fought battle. Johnson withdrew to Fort William Henry and the French to Ticonderoga Point where they constructed Fort Carillon (later Fort Ticonderoga). The British had unceremoniously thrown the bodies of French soldiers killed in the battle into a nearby pond which today is still known as “Bloody Pond.”

Colonel Monckton captured Fort Beausejour in June 1755, which was the only clear British victory. This also interdicted the French land route for reinforcements and supplies to Louisbourg, which isolated the fort. The governor of Nova Scotia, Charles Lawrence ordered the deportation of all French-speaking persons from the area. Monckton’s forces and some of Roger’s Rangers forcibly removed thousands of Acadians. They ran down those who resisted and sometimes committed atrocities.

Following the death of Braddock, William Shirley assumed command of British forces in North America. Shirley proposed an ambitious 1756 campaign, but his plans did not receive enough backing and were dropped.

Shirley was replaced in January 1756 by Lord Loudoun with Major General James Abercrombie as his second in command. Neither had much campaign experience but in May the French sent three very experienced officers and regular army reinforcements to New France. Major General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm was commander and Chevalier de Levis was his deputy. They were accompanied by Colonel Francois-Charles de Bourlamaque. All three were veterans of the War of Austrian Succession.

On 18 May 1756, Britain formally declared war on France, which brought the war to Europe where it was known as the Seven Years’ War. American and French colonists, and British and French regulars fought in North America for two years before the Seven Years’ War officially began.

French Governor Vaudreuil had ambitions to become French commander in chief, so he acted during the 1756 winter before reinforcements arrived. He ordered an attack on the weak British supply chain. His forces attacked and destroyed Fort Bull along with large quantities of supplies including 45,000 pounds of powder. The Vaudreuil initiative set back any British hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario and endangered Fort Oswego. The French also continued their active and successful efforts to persuade Indians in the Ohio valley to raid British frontier settlements.

The new British command did not arrive until July, and they were slow to act. Montcalm took advantage of the British inertia. Montcalm was not cautious and executed a strategic feint that completely fooled the British. He moved his headquarters to Ticonderoga seemingly to attack along Lake George, which pinned down Abercrombie in Albany. Montcalm then slipped away and led a successful attack on Fort Oswego. Montcalm did not allow the Indians in his command to strip prisoners of their personal effects, which angered the Indians.

Cautious British commander Loudoun planned to attack Quebec in 1757. He left a sizable force at Fort William Henry to distract Montcalm while he prepared for the attack on Quebec; however, the Secretary of State for the colonies, William Pitt, ordered him to attack the Fort at Louisbourg first. This expedition was delayed until August when they were prepared to sail from Halifax, Nova Scotia. However, French ships had escaped the British blockade of France and awaited Loudoun at Louisbourg with a fleet that outnumbered the British. Faced with this, Loudoun returned to New York.

Marquis de Montcalm-French and Indian War 1754-1763 — Marquis de Montcalm

The French were also campaigning against Fort William Henry during 1757 while the British were being cautious. In January French irregulars ambushed British rangers near Ticonderoga. In February, they crossed frozen Lake George to William Henry and destroyed storehouses and buildings outside the main fortifications. Montcalm with 7,000 troops laid siege to the fort in early August. Fort commander Lieutenant Colonel George Monro capitulated with an agreement to withdraw under parole (Retain weapons and flags with promise not to fight against the army granting the parole).

When Monro withdrew his column consisted of his troops, Indian allies, and civilians. Some of Montcalm’s Indian allies who were still angry about being denied loot at Oswego, attacked Monro’s column killing and capturing several hundred men, women, children, and slaves.

The aftermath of this siege apparently contributed to the transmission of smallpox to remote Indian tribes. Some Indians from west of the Mississippi River reportedly had traveled east to fight in the war and then returned to their home tribes. Some historians believe this explains early infection in the west.

Fortunes changed in 1758. The blockade of France was limiting the supplies reaching New France. To make matters worse, the 1757 harvest was poor, the winter was hard, and there was a corrupt supply official involved. Also, the massive outbreak of smallpox among the western tribes limited trade.

Malcolm dedicated his limited resources to defending the St. Lawrence, particularly Carillon, Quebec, and Louisbourg. Vaudreuil unsuccessfully argued for raiding tactics that had worked well in past years.

British failures in North America combined with failures in the European theater led to the fall of Prime Minister Newcastle and his military advisor the Duke of Cumberland. Newcastle then joined in an uneasy partnership with Pitt, but Pitt dominated military planning. Pitt’s plan for 1758 was primarily developed by Loudoun who had been replaced by Abercrombie as commander in chief after the failures of 1757.

Portrait of William Pitt-French and Indian war-1754-1763 — Portrait of William Pitt

William Pitt was a visionary who saw that winning the French and Indian War should result in total British control of North America and be part of a British empire. This led Pitt to be very aggressive.

Pitt’s plan called for three major expeditions involving large numbers of regular troops supported by militias and aimed at the heartland of New France. Two of these were successful.

In the September-October period, 6,000 men led by General John Forbes was sent to drive the French out of the Ohio Territory. The French withdrew from Fort Duquesne which left the British in control of the Ohio River Valley.

Jeffry Amherst led the expedition against the French fortress at Louisbourg in Nova Scotia. Amherst lay siege to the fort and the French capitulated six weeks later. This was a bittersweet victory because the British had captured this fort during King George’s War. The peace treaty ending that war called for the British to return the fort to the French, which had enraged the British colonists.

The third expedition led by Abercrombie moved to Fort Carillon with 18,000 regulars, militia and Indians. The French engaged them outside the walls of the fort with only 3 ,600 men. The British force even met the axiom that you need a force ratio of five to one to successfully assault a fortified position so it should have been an easy victory. Instead, the battle was a total disaster. The French soundly defeated the British in the Battle of Carillon.

Abercrombie withdrew, but he did salvage something from the disaster by sending Lieutenant Colonel John Bradstreet on an expedition that destroyed Fort Frontenac. He also destroyed caches of supplies destined for New France’s western forts and furs destined for Europe.

Major General Jeffrey Amherst-French and Indian War 1754-1763 — Major General Jeffrey Amherst

Abercrombie was recalled and replaced by Major General Jeffery Amherst.

The French had struggled in most theaters during 1758. They had a new foreign minister, duc de Choiseul who decided to focus on an invasion of Britain to draw British resources away from North America and the European mainland. The invasion failed militarily and politically.

Meanwhile Pitt was planning major campaigns against New France, and he sent funds to Britain’s main foe in Europe, Prussia. Also, the French Navy lost two naval battles in 1759–Lagos and Quiberon Bay. On the plus side, some French supply ships were able to evade the British blockade.

Fort Ticonderoga-French and Indian War 1754-1763 — Fort Ticonderoga

The British were campaigning in the northwest Canadian frontier to isolate French frontier forts to the west and south. The British had committed adequate men, ordnance, and materiel and were, with a few exceptions, essentially unstoppable. They were overwhelming the French. They captured Fort Ticonderoga (French called it Carillon) and Fort Niagara. They also defeated the French at the Thousand Islands by capturing Fort Levis in the summer of 1759.

The most pivotal battle was fought in September when after a hard fight British forces commanded by James Wolfe defeated Montcalm in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. Both commanders were killed in this battle which resulted in the capitulation of Quebec. This was a big blow to the French, and in April 1760 the French attempted to retake Quebec. Francois Gaston de Levis led this attempt and although he won the Battle of Sainte-Foy, his siege of Quebec failed when British ships arrived to relieve the garrison. After de Levis retreated the British Navy scored a victory near the Restigouche River in New France, which interdicted supplies meant for Levis army.

In July, Jeffrey Amherst led about 18,000 men in a three-pronged attack on Montreal. The three columns converged on the city and surrounded it in September after eliminating all French resistance along the way. Amherst laid a tight siege against Montreal. There many desertions, including Indian warriors, from the city. On 8 September 1760, de Levis and Marquis de Vaudreuil reluctantly signed the Articles of Capitulation of Montreal. The fall of Quebec and Montreal essentially completed the total conquest of New France by the British.

Governor Vaudreuil and General Amherst negotiated a deal in Montreal in September that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be free to worship in their Roman Catholic tradition, to own property, and to remain undisturbed in their homes. This agreement did not last long because of the British Protestant colonist’s distrust of “popery,”

Most of the fighting in North America ended in 1760 but continued in Europe between Britain and France. The main exception was the surprise French seizure of St. John’s Newfoundland. General Amherst dispatched a force commanded by his nephew William Amherst. They regained control of Newfoundland after the Battle of Signal Hill in September 1762.

Once fighting ended, the British provided medical treatment for sick and wounded French soldiers. French regular troops were returned to France on British ships if they agreed not to serve again in the “present war.”

Many British regular troops stationed in North America were reassigned to the West Indies where they captured French Martinique. They also captured Spanish Havana when Spain joined the conflict on the side of France.

The French and Indian War and the Seven Years War officially ended on 10 February 1763 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. France ceded all its North American possessions east of the Mississippi River to Britain except for two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and fishing rights in the area. They recovered their lost Caribbean possessions. Spain traded Florida to regain Havana. The Spanish also gained Louisiana, including New Orleans, Britain and Spain agreed the Mississippi River would be open to vessels of all nations.

The French and Indian War added considerable land area to the British colonies and finally established and stabilized borders. It also eliminated a hostile and aggressive enemy from those borders.

In the wake of the French and Indian War, the Crown believed the colonists should help pay for the war and help pay for and house British troops assigned to protect the colonies. Colonial militia had provided troops for the war, and many believed the British troops were no longer needed.

The Crown levied new taxes on the colonies. They were met with considerable resistance, but the British went on to pass the Intolerable Acts which infuriated the colonists even more. This was an irresistible force meeting an immovable object and led to the American Revolution.

One good result of the French and Indian War was that colonial militias had proliferated and were better trained and better armed, and many had combat experience. Also, there was a whole generation of combat experienced colonial officers. Frontier Americans produced the first unconventional warfare military units with skills that were instrumental in future wars.

Last of Mohicans Movie-French and Indian War 1754-1763 — Last of Mohicans Movie-

The French and Indian War is ingrained in the American mind because of What it accomplished and for all the legends and literature that it spawned. The best known is the “Last of the Mohicans” by James Fenimore Cooper whose book is fictional but contains many facts. If you read the book, which generations of us have, or seen the movie you will recognize Monro’s retreat from Fort William Henry and the massacre that followed. Many towns and villages still commemorate French and Indian battles and have local museums containing artifacts from that war. ilur

July 1, 2022July 1, 2022

Thomas Jefferson-Author Declaration of Independence

Thomas Jefferson-Thomas Jefferson- Author of Declaration of Independence — Thomas Jefferson

I admire Thomas Jefferson so much that I named my only son after him. Jefferson was the primary author of the Declaration of Independence, and the nation’s first secretary of state, second vice president, and third president. His phrase in the Declaration, “all men are created equal” was the most radical and revolutionary ever expressed. His words have come ringing through the years and are still used as a rallying cry for people all over the world who seek freedom. Next to George Washington, he is probably the most admired man in American history.

President John F. Kennedy honored Jefferson at a 1962 dinner honoring 49 Nobel Prize winners by stating: “I think this is the most extraordinary collection of talent, of human knowledge that has ever been gathered together at the White House, with the possible exception of when Thomas Jefferson dined alone.” This was quite a tribute to Jefferson.

Thomas Jefferson was born on 13 April 1743 on his father’s 5,000-acre plantation, Shadwell. Shadwell is located at the foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountains along the Rivanna River in the Piedmont region of central Virginia. His father, Peter Jefferson, was a successful planter and surveyor. His mother was Jane Randolph a member of one of the most distinguished families in Virginia. The Jefferson’s had two sons (Jefferson was the eldest) and six daughters.

When Thomas was three years old the family temporarily relocated to Tuckahoe Plantation located in the Richmond area. The move was necessitated by the death of William Randolph III whose wife had preceded him in death the year before. Randolph’s will had a provision asking that Peter Jefferson come to Tuckahoe to care for his three orphaned children. Peter packed up his entire family and moved to Tuckahoe.

The Jefferson and Randolph children lived together at Tuckahoe for six years when Thomas began his formal education. He boarded with a local schoolmaster to learn Latin and Greek. In 1760 he enrolled in the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg. There he studied under William Small who brought the latest Enlightenment thinking from Scotland and he dined frequently with Governor Francis Fauquier and other high-ranking Virginia officials.

Young Thomas was a very dedicated student. He studied science, mathematics, rhetoric, philosophy, and literature. He spent 15 hours a day studying, three hours practicing the violin, and six hours eating and sleeping.

William and Mary educated the sons of the most wealthy and influential Virginia families. Thomas Jefferson became acquainted with many others that would become involved in future revolutionary politics and military. Away from college, he became acquainted with a young man whose pen would also become famous by becoming the voice of revolution—Thomas Paine.

In 1762 Jefferson began legal studies under George Wythe who also taught John Marshall and Henry Clay. When he was admitted to the Virginia Bar in 1767, Jefferson was probably the nation’s best-read lawyer. His practice involved representing mainly small-scale western county planters in land disputes. He gained a reputation as a formidable attorney but came across as an indifferent speaker and somewhat shy.

Thomas Jefferson’s father had died in 1757. As eldest son, he officially inherited Shadwell in 1764 at 21 years old; however, he had to lease the property from his mother until she died in 1776 because she had a “life estate” for the property. He operated Shadwell mainly as a tobacco plantation.

Jefferson was a meticulous manager and record keeper and was actively involved in the slave trade to keep his slave population young and productive. The records also indicated that he could be a hard taskmaster, and his punishment could be severe.

About 200 slaves were needed to operate Shadwell and over Jefferson’s lifetime he owned around 600 slaves. He defended the institution of slavery most of his life, and he believed blacks were inferior to whites. His opinions were not unusual during his time. Most people in the south and many in the north agreed with Jefferson.

Interestingly, in 1781 Jefferson authored “Notes on the State of Virginia,” which included a discussion of slavery. He described the terrible effects of slavery on both blacks and whites and asserted that it violated the principles of the Revolution. He also stated his belief in the inferiority of blacks. His stated views on slavery seemed to place him in the forefront of the anti-slavery movement, but his actions did not back up his words in “Notes.”

From his childhood, Jefferson had dreamed of living on a mountain and in 1768, he made the decision to build his home on an 867-foot-high mountain on Shadwell Plantation. He eventually named his new home Monticello (Little Mountain in Italian). Also in 1768, he was a successful candidate for the Virginia House of Burgesses.

Monticello-Thomas Jefferson-Author of Declaration of Independence — Monticello-

In 1770, fire destroyed the manor house at Shadwell. Thomas’ books and papers were lost in the fire. After the fire, Thomas moved to Monticello, which consisted of one small brick structure. (Now called the South Pavilion.) As construction continued over the years under Jefferson’s close supervision, he referred to Monticello as “my essay in Architecture.” He designed the complete structure. Throughout his career Jefferson would pursue politics with periods of seclusion at his beloved Monticello.

Jefferson entered politics just as serious opposition to the taxation policies of the British Parliament was beginning. This provided him and many other colonial politicians with the vehicle which they would ride to fame and a new nation.

Thomas Jefferson was freckled with reddish blond hair, hazel eyes, and a reddish complexion. He was tall for his day (about six feet two inches), awkward and gangly, shy, and was no public speaker. His writing was eloquent and powerful, but he rarely spoke in debates in the Burgesses or later in the Continental Congress. Jefferson’s compositions spoke for him.

Martha Jefferson-Thomas Jefferson-Author Declaration of Independence — Martha Jefferson

In 1772, Jefferson married Martha Wales Skelton, an attractive and delicate young widow whose dowry more than doubled his holdings in land and slaves. The couple moved into the partially completed Monticello. The marriage produced six children but only two daughters survived to adulthood.

In 1774, Jefferson wrote “A Summary View of the Rights of British America” which was published without his permission. This essay stated that the colonies’ ties to Britain were a “voluntary loyalty” to the crown and made Jefferson known beyond Virginia as an early advocate of independence.

Jefferson’s new reputation resulted in the Virginia legislature appointing him a delegate to the Second Continental Congress. He rode into Philadelphia—and into American history—on 20 June 1775 in an ornate carriage drawn by four horses and accompanied by three slaves, and with a firm belief in the American cause.

Jefferson’s shyness and poor oratory prevented him from taking an active part in the congressional debates. John Adams remembered that he was silent even in committee meetings but always strongly supported independence. His main job was to draft congressional resolutions so on 11 June 1776 he was appointed to a five-man committee to draft a document to cite the reasons behind Richard Henry Lee’s resolution to break from Great Britain.

The committee was composed of two New England men, John Adams of Massachusetts, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut; two men from the Middle Colonies, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, and Robert R. Livingston of New York; and one southerner, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia.

Presentation of Declaration of Independence-Thomas Jefferson-Author Declaration of Independence — Presentation of Declaration of Independence

The draft was prepared in a few days with Jefferson being the main author of this document that would change the world. Jefferson later claimed he was not striving for “originality of principle or sentiment” but was seeking to provide “an expression of the American mind,” which meant putting into words ideas already accepted by most Americans. This describes the longest section of the Declaration, which cites the grievances against George III. It does not, however, describe the 55 words that are the bedrock of our Republic and probably the most momentous in human history:

“We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.”

Much to his chagrin, Congress debated and edited more than 20 percent of Jefferson’s document, but they made no changes to the above section. His contemporaries regarded the final Declaration as a collective effort of the congress, and Jefferson was not recognized as the principal author until the 1790s.

Jefferson returned to Virginia in October 1776 and began an extensive reform of the state’s legal code to bring it in line with the principles of the Revolution.

His three areas of reform suggest his own political vision. First, he proposed and secured changes that eliminated primogeniture (primarily inheritance by eldest male) entail (restriction of sale of estates to protect family and class possession) and all other remnants of feudalism that discouraged broad distribution of property. Second, he proposed education reform to guarantee access to lower levels of schooling to all citizens and state support for the most talented students to attend higher levels of education. Third, he advocated a law prohibiting establishment of a state religion and he proposed separation of church and state.

The last two proposals were bitterly contested, particularly those on religious freedom, which were not enacted until 1786.

These reforms demonstrate Jefferson’s vision of the role of government. He believed that the privileges and impediments of the past had to be left behind to allow the natural energies of individuals to flow freely. He saw the American Revolution as the first shot in what would become a global battle for liberation from despotic and coercive governments. History shows he was right.

Jefferson was elected governor of Virginia in 1779 and was riding a wave of political success when disaster struck on two fronts. He was caught off-guard by a surprise British invasion of Virginia in 1780. The state was not prepared and was defenseless. His flight from the approaching British was somewhat unfairly described in the local press as a “cowardly act of abdication.” This would be recalled by his political enemies throughout his career. The second disaster was in September 1782 when his beloved wife died following the difficult birth of their third daughter in May.

The two disasters caused him to vow to never again desert his family for the country, but this sincere vow was short-lived. He reluctantly agreed to again serve as a delegate to the Continental Congress in December 1782. His major, and especially important, contribution to this congressional session concerned the admittance of new states. Jefferson proposed and congress established that territories in the west had status equal to the original states once certain conditions were met (such as adequate population, and a functioning territorial government).

Jefferson needed to escape things that reminded him of his beloved Martha, so in 1784 he agreed to replace Benjamin Franklin as American minister to France. Legend has it that he agreed to “succeed” Franklin noting that no one could replace him.

During his five years in France, Jefferson accomplished little diplomatically mainly because no European power wanted to have treaty relations or trade with a nation they believed would fail. The American government was obviously weak and Great Britain controlled over 80 percent of America’s trade. Efforts by Jefferson to reopen French markets failed since France was already moving towards a political crisis and a brutal revolution.

Jefferson did help negotiate a $400,000 loan from Dutch bankers, but John Adams who was minister to the Court of St. James (Britain) was the main negotiator. This loan allowed America to consolidate its European debts.

During his Paris years Jefferson enjoyed the local arts, wine, and food, but warned American tourists to avoid the sins of European society. He brought his two daughters to Paris because of his love for them, but he placed them in a convent. He then wrote them stern lectures about proper behavior. Jefferson, however, had a steamy and very public affair with Maria Cosway, a married woman.

Jefferson also had a long sexual relationship with one of his slaves, Sally Hemings. She had accompanied him to Paris. Some believe this relationship began in France when his affair with Cosway ended, but I doubt this. I believe the Sally Hemings relationship began before his appointment to France. I don’t think he would have brought her to France if she was not already a sexual partner. Jefferson fathered several children with Hemings, and their descendants are now recognized as part of the Jefferson family.

As Louis XVI tried to address France’s financial crises, Jefferson believed the French Revolution would be bloodless and result in a constitutional monarchy. Influenced by moderates like the Marquis de Lafayette, he was oblivious to the fact that the French were about to explode into the bloody Reign of Terror. Jefferson believed the French Revolution would follow the American model. He was lucky to depart France in late 1789 just at the onset of mob violence.

George Washington-Thomas Jefferson-Author Declaration of Independence — George Washington

When Jefferson returned to the new United States, he was tapped by President George Washington to serve as the first secretary of state. This was a tall order because there had never been a lasting republican nation the size of the United States and no one was sure of how it would turn out.

Jefferson had been in France during the 1787-1788 constitutional debates and the state ratifying conventions, so he entered the bitter debates of the 1790’s without a history of constitutional convictions. Unlike his close friend James Madison, his major concern was that the Constitution did not include a Bill of Rights.

During his 1790-1793 service as secretary of state, Jefferson was responsible for foreign policy, but the cabinet was divided into three factions. All embraced the neutrality doctrine but differed on what neutrality looked like. Washington and Vice President John Adams favored absolute neutrality, Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton pushed for a pro-English neutrality, and Jefferson favored a pro-French neutrality. Jefferson believed the Franco-American treaty of 1778 obliged the US to this policy to honor the French support during the American Revolution.

Jefferson also insisted that the French Revolution embodied the “spirit of 76” and even when it turned into a blood bath of executions and mayhem, he insisted they were temporary excesses. He further believed the excesses were justified by larger and more important issues. He never repudiated this view.

When Jefferson was informed of Shay’s Rebellion in 1786, he stated: “I hold it that a little rebellion now and then is a good thing, and as necessary in the political world as storms in the physical.” This attitude dovetails with his view of the French Revolution.

The Jefferson view of foreign policy never wavered from his admiration of the French. Even after his retirement from office in 1793, he actively opposed the Neutrality Act of 1793 and the Jay Treaty in 1795. He saw these as betrayal of the French and as pacts with the British “harlot.”

John Adams-Thomas Jefferson-Author Declaration of Independence — John Adams

John Adams was president 1797-1801 and since Jefferson received the second most votes, he was elected vice president. Jefferson worked behind the scenes to undermine Adams’ efforts to maintain absolute neutrality. Jefferson blamed the “Quasi-War” with France on “our American Anglophiles” rather than the French. His view was that England was corrupt and despotic and France was enlightened and the wave of the future.

On the domestic scene, Jefferson saw the efforts to develop a strong central government as a plot to subvert the true meaning of the American Revolution. Alexander Hamilton was working to establish a federal financial system and Jefferson was bitterly opposed to Hamilton. Jefferson believed the Federalists were trying to install monarchy and an American aristocracy to rule the country.

The Federalists and Anti-Federalists formed political parties because of their bitterly different visions on the role of government. George Washington and some others believed the formation of political parties was divisive, but it was a natural progression of organization. The parties called themselves Federalists and Republicans (later Democratic-Republicans).

Early American politics were very turbulent, personal, and nasty. Today’s politics are much the same, but Jefferson and his contemporaries had just won a brutal revolution against one of the strongest military powers in the world at that time. They had laid out the principles and purposes of a completely new type of government in the Constitution, but now they had to make it work. This was not an easy task and most of the world believed they would fail. I believe they very may well have failed if not for George Washington who was a strong, stabilizing, and calming influence who brought real class to the American image.

The founders were spiritual, intelligent, tough, opinionated, and ambitious. Each one saw the role of government differently. All of them were willing to fight for their vision of government and some were willing to destroy their opponents any way they could. In the end, they did great, and the government of “we the people” emerged.

The partnership of Jefferson and James Madison was especially powerful. John Quincey Adams described the partnership as follows; “the mutual influence of these two mighty minds on each other is a phenomenon like the invisible and mysterious movements of the magnet in the physical world.” Their opposition to a strong central government gained them the label of “traitors” by the Federalist press.

Jefferson was duplicitous and hypocritical in his dealings and some historians are negative about his moral and public character. He was leading a political party while insisting that parties were “evil agents.” In 1796 he unsuccessfully ran for president against John Adams while claiming he did not know he was a candidate.

The 1800 election was one of the most fiercely contested and nastiest campaigns in American history. The Federalist press described Jefferson as a pagan and atheist, conspirator against the Washington-Adams administrations, a utopian dreamer, an anarchist, and a cunning behind-the-scenes manipulator of Republican propaganda. He was guilty of the last accusation.

Always acting through intermediaries, Jefferson paid journalists to libel his old friend John Adams and he offered the vice presidency to Aaron Burr for delivering New York’s electoral votes. When Burr and Jefferson tied for the top job, the House, after a lot of backroom wheeling and dealing, elected Jefferson on the 36th ballot. Burr was elected vice president.

Many wondered if the new nation could survive a Jefferson presidency since he was so defiantly against a strong central government. It was believed by some that he would completely dismantle the government that he had helped found. Despite the worries this was the first peaceful transfer of power from one party to another in the nation’s history.

Jefferson gave his inaugural address on 4 March 1801 and his tone was conciliatory stating that “We are all republicans—we are all federalists.” He described his election as a return to the original intentions of the Revolution after those who had erroneously believed in a powerful central government. The people he said, were now unburdened of government restrictions.

Once he selected a cabinet the real work of governing began. Jefferson had few cabinet meetings because he preferred to conduct business in writing. He did the same with Congress and gave all his presentations in writing. During his two terms as president, Jefferson only delivered two speeches—his inaugural addresses. This was due to his poor oratory skills, and his desire to reduce the visibility of the president.

Louisiana Territory-Thomas Jefferson-Author Declaration of Independence — Louisiana Territory

By far the major achievement of Jefferson’s first term, and of his presidency, was the purchase of Louisiana from France in 1803. Nepoleon needed the cash to finance a new war with England. The cost of fifteen million dollars was a huge sum in 1803 and it substantially increased the national debt; however, in the long run it was a stupendous bargain. Louisiana stretched from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains and essentially doubled the size of the United States. It also removed the threat of a major foreign power from America’s borders.

Many historians believe the Louisiana Purchase was the boldest executive action in American history. Jefferson suffered considerable criticism for his action, but he never wavered. He correctly saw it as the future of the country. Even before word of the French approval reached the United States in July 1803, Jefferson dispatched his private secretary, Merriwether Lewis, to lead an exploration of Louisiana and beyond to the Pacific Ocean.

Jefferson easily won reelection in 1804 over Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and his policies continued to reflect his desire for decentralization. He was dismantling much of the government including the military and federal tax programs. His policies initially enjoyed success because the pause in war between England and France allowed trade with both countries resulting in American prosperity.

The prosperity did not last long because Napoleon’s war against England resumed resulting in naval blockades in the Atlantic and Caribbean that severely curtailed American trade. Jefferson responded with the Embargo Act of 1807. This act made matters worse because American trade with the major powers was too small to influence their actions and only American traders suffered. In addition, enforcement of the act required coercive powers that Jefferson opposed on principle.

Despite significant pressure to take sides in the Napoleonic War, Jefferson attempted to maintain American neutrality. This action only enraged the belligerents.

Jefferson’s second term was marred by some actions that were contrary to his eloquent words. The Federalist Party was dead, but some opposition survived, particularly in New England. Jefferson was outraged by the persistent attacks on his policies and character and instructed the attorneys general in those states to seek indictments against his detractors. This was a clear violation of the First Amendment to the Constitution and of Jefferson’s stated support of a free press and freedom of expression.

Aaron Burr was also a victim of Jefferson’s wrath. Burr had killed popular Alexander Hamilton in a duel, and many wanted him tried for murder. He was later accused of treason because of a mysterious expedition to the American Southwest and Spanish Texas. Burr allegedly planned to detach some territory from the United States and to establish himself as dictator in Texas. Jefferson illegally issued an order to convict Burr without a trial and sent federal agents to pursue him.

The charges of treason against Burr were never proved because of a distinct lack of evidence. Burr turned himself in and was tried twice and was acquitted both times. Jefferson still demanded Burr be convicted and the feds still pursued him. Finally Chief Justice John Marshall served as judge in the final Burr trial. Burr was again acquitted.

Jefferson’s demands for a guilty verdict against Burr and the pursuit by federal authorities was clearly unconstitutional, illegal, and unbecoming of the President of the United States.

By the time he left office in March 1809, Jefferson was a tired and beaten, and I would say bitter man. He was anxious to retire to his beloved Monticello.

Jefferson maintained an active schedule in retirement. His day was organized. He rose at dawn, bathed his feet in cold water, and spent the morning on his correspondence (one year he wrote almost 1,300 letters), and working in his garden. Each afternoon he took a two-hour ride around his grounds. Dinner was usually with his daughter Martha and her 12 children and many guests. Monticello sometimes housed 50 guests. The lack of privacy caused him to build another house on his Bedford estate about 90 miles away for occasional seclusion.

University of Virginia-Thomas Jefferson-Author Declaration of Independence — University of Virginia

Three architectural projects consumed Jefferson during his life and remain as his physical legacy. Monticello was always a work-in-progress that was never completed. This beautiful neoclassic manor house and grounds attract thousands of visitors every year. The mansion at Bedford (Poplar Forest) is also neoclassic and a perfect octagon. The site of the University of Virginia was selected and surveyed by Jefferson. He chose the Pantheon of Rome as the model for the rotunda, which is flanked by two rows of living quarters for students and faculty.

The university embodies everything Jefferson. He selected the books for the library, defined the curriculum, picked the faculty, and chaired the Board of Visitors. Unlike other colleges and universities of the day, the University of Virginia had no religious affiliation and imposed no religious requirements on students. There was no code of conduct except a self-enforced honor system.

Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were giants of the American Revolution, but they became political enemies during the tumultuous formation of political parties in the 1790’s. In 1812 Benjamin Rush successfully arranged a reconciliation between the two. He described them as “the North and South poles of the American Revolution.” They had genuine differences in their concept of government, but they respected each other, and they exchanged 158 letters between 1812 and 1826. Most historians believe these letters are the most intellectually impressive correspondence between statesmen in American history.

In late June 1826 Jefferson was invited to attend the celebration of the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence in Washington, D.C. Jefferson could not attend because he was in no physical condition to leave Monticello, so he drafted a statement to be read in his place. These were his final words to the people of the United States:

“May it be to the world, what I believe it will be, (to some parts sooner, to others later, but finally to all,) the signal of arousing men to burst the chains under which monkish ignorance and superstition had persuaded them to bind themselves, and to assume the blessings and security of self-government.… All eyes are opened or opening to the rights of men. The general spread of the light of science has already laid open to every view the palpable truth, that the mass of mankind has not been born with saddles on their backs, nor a favored few, booted and spurred, ready to ride them legitimately by the grace of God. These are grounds of hope for others; for ourselves, let the annual return of this day forever refresh our recollections of these rights, and an undiminished devotion to them.”

As these words were being read in Washington, Jefferson was dying at Monticello. He died about half past noon on 4 July 1826. His last conscious words were the preceding evening when he asked, “Is it the Fourth?” In Quincy, Massachusetts, John Adams was also dying. He died in the afternoon of 4 July 1826, and his last words were: “Thomas Jefferson still lives.” It is amazing but fitting that these two American giants should die on the anniversary of the Declaration of Independence.

Thomas Jefferson is buried at Monticello. He designed his gravestone and dictated the epitaph which reads:

Here was buried
Thomas Jefferson
Author of the Declaration of American Independence
of the Statute of Virginia for religious freedom
& Father of the University of Virginia

Thomas Jefferson Gravestone-Thomas Jefferson-Author Declaration of Independence — Thomas Jefferson Gravestone-

The original monument was erected in 1833 but visitors chipped off fragments for souvenirs. This stone was removed to protect it. Congress funded a new granite stone which was erected in 1883. The family donated the original stone to the University of Missouri in 1885. Missouri was a part of the Louisiana Territory.

Like many of our founders, Jefferson was deeply in debt during his later years. However, Jefferson had been in debt most of his life because of debt inherited from his father-in-law in his wife’s dowry, but mostly because of his lavish lifestyle. By the end of his life, he owed more than $100,000.00 (several million dollars today) and there was no way his heirs could inherit any of his estate. Everything, including Monticello, was auctioned off and Jefferson’s daughter, Martha, was forced to accept charity to sustain her family.

Jefferson Memorial Washington, D.C.-Thomas Jefferson-Author Declaration of Independence — Jefferson Memorial Washington, D.C.-

Jefferson has been honored in so many ways that I cannot possibly catalog them. I will only say that his memorial in Washington, D.C. is simple and one of the most beautiful. His commanding statue stands before one of his famous statements etched into the wall:

“I have sworn upon the altar of God, eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man”

At the start of this bio I expressed how much I admire Thomas Jefferson. I recognize that he had many serious flaws, however, his flaws make him a normal man. I could never admire a man that seemed perfect because I would know it coudn’t be true.

Ideas and decisions are made and influenced by our personal beliefs and the culture we live in. Society is always evolving, and beliefs change. Even religion evolves over time. My family fought on both sides of the Civil War when thousands of white men died to free black slaves. Jim Crow and segregation were eliminated in my time and today black and brown people enjoy the same rights as whites, which fulfills Jefferson’s words in the Declaration of Independence.

I am proud of all my ancestors and all Americans who have preceded me. They made decisions that were often flawed, but they made decisions and then lived with the results.

The Bible declares: “judge not, lest ye be judged.” Maybe we should all remember that passage and try to live by it.

June 11, 2022June 15, 2022

King George’s War-1744-1748

King George’s War (George II) is the fourth in a series of five early colonial wars we are reporting on. Like two of the earlier wars, King George’s War was the colonial theatre of a war in Europe. The heaviest fighting and most of the casualties occurred in the northern British colonies of New York, Massachusetts Bay (including Maine), New Hampshire (including Vermont), and Nova Scotia. Casualties were also very high in the Ohio Valley. As in previous wars, Indian tribes allied with the colonists and suffered the heaviest casualties. The Wabanaki Confederacy was allied with the French and the Iroquois tribes were allied with the British.

War began between Spain and Britain in 1739. This war was mostly maritime and confined to the Caribbean, Spanish Florida, and the British colony of Georgia. Georgia had been established to serve as a buffer between the Carolinas and Spanish Florida and was doing the job. Spanish privateers operating from St Augustine effectively attacked British shipping from the Carolinas and Georgia for years causing significantly increased trade costs.

The European conflict, the War of the Austrian Succession, began in 1740. It was nominally over the legitimacy of the accession of Maria Theresa to the Austrian throne. The conflict involved all the Continental European monarchies who were always grasping for more power and property. Britain and France were involved, but initially tried avoid the fighting. This ended in 1743 when British troops that had been sent to the continent were attacked by the French.

Although Britain and France began fighting in 1743, war between them was not officially declared until 15 March 1744. When news of the war declarations reached the French colonists at Fortress Louisbourg on 5 May they acted quickly to protect their overland supply lines to Quebec. They attacked and destroyed the important British fishing port of Canso, Nova Scotia. Fifty British families were taken prisoner and held at Fortress Louisbourg.

The French attacking force had sailed from Fortress Louisbourg located on Cape Breton Island. This fort protected the mouth of the St. Lawrence River, which provided access to the Atlantic Ocean for important French outposts of Quebec and Montreal. The fort was also an important base for privateers who were effectively harassing and plundering British shipping. The British quickly recognized that they needed to destroy or neutralize this fort.

The French and their Indian allies that destroyed Canso also planned to recapture Annapolis Royal (previously French Port Royal), the British capital of Nova Scotia. However, they were unable to execute the plan so in July they opted to attack Fort Anne. This fort protected the Annapolis Royal harbor.

The Fort Anne garrison was prepared, and the French siege plan failed. The French lacked adequate heavy weapons and withdrew after a few days. In mid-August, the French again attacked Fort Anne and again were unsuccessful.

Governor William Shirley-King George's War-1744-1748 — Governor William Shirley

In 1745, Massachusetts Governor William Shirley raised 4,000 troops and the money to finance them. These troops were to be commanded by Maine Colonel William Pepperell. Their daunting but critical objective was to capture or destroy Fortress Louisbourg. This fort was one of the strongest in North America. It featured strong masonry walls 20 to 30 feet high and was defended by 100 cannon.

The British attackers had an ace in the hole. They were armed with detailed information about the fort’s defenses and troop morale. This intelligence had been obtained by former British prisoners from Canso who had been held in the fort. The prisoners had been allowed to roam the fort freely and those with past military experience collected the information.

In April, the British force sailed to Fortress Louisbourg. Vice Admiral Sir Peter Warren’s Royal Navy fleet was wisely positioned to block any French reinforcements. The fort had formidable defenses seaward, but the land approach had much weaker defenses. The French believed a land attack was unlikely. (This thinking is reminiscent of British defense of Singapore in World War II.)

On 28 June, after a six-week siege followed by a ground assault, the British captured Fortress Louisbourg. This was the most important strategic victory by either side during King George’s War. It also crippled the lucrative French fur trade that had been contributing to the treasury of France.

Colonel Sir William Pepperell-King George's War-1744-1748 — Colonel Sir William Pepperell

Colonel Pepperell was later rewarded by King George II with the title of Baronet. The first American colonial to be honored this way

Indian allies of the French retaliated for the loss of Fortress Louisbourg by launching their Northeast Coast Campaign. This was a series of attacks on British settlements on the border of Acadia in Maine. About 30 settlers were killed or captured, and many structures were destroyed. Skirmishes and raids were also happening along the northern British colonies and New France border.

Royal Army Major Geneal Sir William Johnson-King George's War-1744-1748 — Royal Army Major Geneal Sir William Johnson

The Ohio Valley frontier was claimed by both Britain and France, and the French were slightly more successful in that area. Their strong position at Crown Point on Lake Champlain was used as a staging base for Indian attacks on British settlements. Royal Army Major General Sir William Johnson retaliated by organizing Iroquois strikes against French positions. Losses on both sides in the Ohio Valley were extremely high but no clear winner emerged.

On 28 November 1745, a unit composed of 400 French troops and 220 Indians attacked the western frontier village of Saratoga, New York. They killed 30 British colonists, took 100 prisoners, and destroyed the village. The British then abandoned their settlements north of Albany, New York because they could no longer be defended.

In 1746, the French assembled a large force that was tasked to recapture Fortress Louisbourg and then move against Boston, Massachusetts. However, a major storm scattered the French fleet, and the plan had to be abandoned. A force of 900 French and Indians then raided the Hoosic River Valley near Williamstown, Massachusetts, and captured Fort Massachusetts.

In 1747, French and Indians attacked Grand Pre, Nova Scotia killing about 70 British soldiers. In 1748, Indian allies of the French conducted an ineffective raid on Schenectady, New York.

King George’s War ended when France, Britain and the Dutch Republic signed the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle on 18 October 1748. The treaty established that all land, places, and possessions seized during the war in the colonies be returned to the original owners. Most borders between French and British colonies were left unsettled.

The colonists had no voice in the treaty negotiations and the British colonists were infuriated about returning Fortress Louisbourg to the French. The French and British colonists hated each other and both mother countries wanted total control of North America. War in the colonies never really stopped, it just returned to the lower level of conflict along borders and Indian raids on the frontier. It was essentially guerrilla warfare and very brutal. Encroachment on Indian land continued and resulted in small but extremely brutal conflicts.

Iroquois Warrior-King George's War-1744-1748 — Iroquois Warrior

Soon after the treaty was signed France and Britain began to quarrel over borders and over ownership of the Ohio River Valley. King George’s War, like earlier wars, had settled nothing. Many, especially Indians, had died in vain, and it was only a matter of time until the next war.

The next official war, the French and Indian War, exploded on the scene only six years later. It involved larger numbers of French and British regular troops, colonial militias, and Indian tribes. It was even more bloody and brutal than earlier wars.

June 1, 2022June 1, 2022

George Taylor-Servitude to Founder

George Taylor’s journey to becoming a founding father differed significantly from others and is one of the more interesting. He imigrated from Ireland in 1736 as an indentured servant to an ironmaster where he learned his lifelong trade. He entered Pennsylvania politics and eventually became a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Of the 56 signers, Taylor was one of only three born in Ireland, the only former indentured servant, and the only tradesman. Sadly, Taylor died before the end of the Revolutionary War and did not witness freedom from England.

NOTE: Indentured Servitude was an economic system that was popular in the early modern period in Europe and North America. In contrast to chattel slavery, indentured servitude required that a worker sell their labor at no wage in exchange for a fixed payment or to fulfil a legal obligation. These indentures had no regulations for working conditions and sometimes led to brutal working conditions. As a result, many servants died before their obligations had been fulfilled. The debt was then transferred to their living family members. While indentured servitude differed from slavery in its terms and social status, it too was a system of unfree labor that sometimes led to the misery and death of its victims.

Little is known of George Taylor’s early life. He is believed to have been born in the north of Ireland about 1716. He was probably the son of a Protestant clergyman. Based on his reading and writing skills it is likely he received a good basic education in Ireland.

Taylor arrived in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1736. To pay for his passage, he had been indentured to Samuel Savage, Jr., who was ironmaster at Coventry Forge northwest of Philadelphia in Chester County. Taylor started as a laborer shoveling coal into the furnace. When it was discovered that he had some education, he was moved to a clerk position.

In 1738, Savage and his mother, Anna Savage Nutt, built a second mill in Chester County, Warwick Furnace. Three years later, Savage died, and the following year Taylor married his widow, Ann. George and Ann had two children, one girl who died early and a son who survived into adulthood.

George Taylor had learned the ironmaking business and became ironmaster, managing both ironworks for the next ten years. During that time, the ironworks grew and prospered, and George and Ann became wealthy. In 1747 George was appointed captain in a Chester County militia group, his first public service.

When Ann’s son, Samuel III, reached legal age in 1752, he became owner of the mills according to the terms of his father’s will. Ann did keep a life right to two farms.

Artist Depiction of Durham Iron Works-George Taylor-Servitude to Founder — Artist Depiction of Durham Iron Works

The Taylors continued to live at Warwick Furnace until 1755 when George formed a partnership to lease the Durham Furnace in Upper Bucks County for five years with an option for another five years. They moved into the mansion house on the property. This furnace produced cannon ammunition for the Provincial Pennsylvania Government during the French and Indian War (1754-1763).

Taylor became active in Upper Bucks County and Durham politics in 1757 when he was commissioned justice of the peace. He was commissioned again in 1761 and 1763.

While still living in Durham, Taylor bought a small stone house in Easton in Northampton County at a 1761 sheriff’s sale. He also acquired a lot across the street where he built a stone stable. The Taylor family moved to this house when the Durham lease expired in 1763 and lived there for about five years. In 1765 they bought a nearby house and sold it to their son, James for 5 shillings and “their natural love and affection.”

Taylor was elected to the Provincial Assembly in 1764 and served until 1769. He was commissioned justice of the peace for Northampton County serving from 1764 to 1772.

George Taylor Lehigh Mansion-George Taylor-Servitude to Founder — George Taylor Lehigh Mansion

In 1767 Taylor purchased 331 acres about 15 miles west of Easton. He built an impressive stone mansion on a bluff overlooking the Lehigh River. This home still stands today. Sadly, George’s wife Ann died in 1768. The location of her grave was not recorded.

Taylor returned to Durham in 1774 having entered into a five-year lease with Joseph Galloway the owner of the ironworks. He leased the ironworks, mines, quarries, forges, and blast furnaces in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. The ironworks produced a wide variety of commercial products including Franklin stoves.

In 1775, Taylor negotiated a contract to produce grape shot, cannon balls, bar shot and cannon for the Continental Army. Taylor received little compensation for supporting the war effort and his wealth decreased significantly.

In 1775, following the Battle of Bunker Hill, Taylor was commissioned colonel of the 3rd battalion of militia. This was the county’s first step to prepare for the coming conflict with England.

In October 1775, George Taylor was sent to the Pennsylvania Assembly where he helped draft instructions for the state delegation to the Continental Congress. The instructions were straight forward, do not vote for separation.

Public sentiment hardened against the Crown and the instructions were rescinded in June 1776. Several delegates still refused to vote for Independence, so on 20 July the Assembly chose five replacements: George Taylor, George Ross, George Clymer, Dr. Benjamin Rush, and James Smith.

All five replacements travelled to Philadelphia and signed the Declaration of Independence when it was ready for signatures on 2 August 1776. Of the 56 signers, George Taylor was one of only three born in Ireland, the only former indentured servant, and the only tradesman. He had made quite a social and political climb. He was an early example of achieving the American Dream.

George Taylor was active in the Congress serving on the committee that drew up resolutions calling for the states to raise troops. In January 1777, Congress selected him to arrange and preside at the Indian Treaty Conference in Easton, Pennsylvania. He was elected to the new Pennsylvania Supreme Executive Council in March but soon resigned due to illness.

Taylor’s lease of the Durham Ironworks continued through 1779, but the property was seized because the owner, Joseph Galloway, was a Loyalist and traitor who had fled to the British. The authorities tried to evict Taylor, but the Supreme Executive Council allowed him to complete the terms of his lease

The Durham Ironworks was sold in 1779 by the Commissioners of Forfeited Estates. It was purchased by George Taylor, Richard Backhouse, Isaac Sidman, and Robert Hooper Jr. Backhouse took over management of the ironworks, and Taylor moved to New Jersey to lease and run the Greenwich Forge in Warren County.

Taylor moved back to Easton, Pennsylvania in early 1780. He had sold his estate along the Lehigh River and his property in Easton, so he leased a house at Fourth and Ferry Streets.

George Taylor died on 23 February 1781. He did not live to see the end of the Revolutionary War. He was buried in St. John’s Lutheran Church Cemetery across the street from his fourth and Ferry Streets residence. In 1870 the church property was sold to make room for a school and his body was moved to Easton Cemetery.

George Taylor Monument & Grave-George Taylor-Servitude to Founder — George Taylor Monument & Grave

Local residents had erected an impressive black Italian marble monument in honor of George Taylor in the Easton Cemetery in 1854. In April 1870, his body was moved again and re-buried in front of the monument.

Taylor left half of his estate to his five grandchildren (his son James had died in 1775). The other half was left to the five children he had fathered with his housekeeper, Naomi Smith. He never married Naomi. Unfortunately for the beneficiaries, his estate proved to be insolvent.

George Taylor is not widely known, but he was a patriot. By signing the Declaration of Independence, he risked his life, his fortune, and his sacred honor. He was a hardworking man who started about as low as you possibly could as an indentured servant. He achieved wealth and lived comfortably but when his country called, he answered the call. Serving his country depleted his wealth but he gained the esteem and respect of his contemporaries.

I want to conclude with what an unknown admirer of George Taylor wrote:

“George Taylor was one of the brilliant and forceful men of his time, an earnest and ardent patriot in the trying times of his adopted country’s needs, a fearless and able legislator seasoning every act of his long public career, by hard robust, conservative common sense.”

May 15, 2022May 15, 2022

Queen Anne’s War 1702-1713

Queen Anne’s War was the third in a series of five early North American wars involving the colonial powers of England, France and Spain and their Indian allies. Once again, war in Europe spilled into the colonies. This time it was the War of Spanish Succession which was fought during the reign of Queen Anne of Britain to prevent the union of the French and Spanish thrones following the death of King Charles II of Spain.

In North America the Indians and the colonists were continually engaged in low level, but very lethal, conflict. The European settlers gradually pushed into each other’s territory, and they all encroached on Indian lands. The resultant clashes could be very brutal and bloody. The European powers and their colonists were competing for full control of the North American continent. The Indians just wanted all the whites out. These groups were more than willing to raise the conflict level to full-scale war.

The British colonies were the most populous and stretched from Massachusetts Bay Province in the north to Carolina in the south. Most of the population was concentrated along the coast although a few settlers had reached the east slope of the Appalachian Mountains. Some in Carolina had established trade relations with Indian tribes in the interior.

The French occupied Acadia (Nova Scotia) and Canada and had pushed to the mouth of the Mississippi River. They established a settlement near present day Biloxi, Mississippi. From there they established trade with western Indian tribes, which interfered with British traders from Carolina. Newfoundland and Hudson Bay had both French and British settlements resulting in uneasy relationships.

The third European power in North America was Spain. They occupied La Florida where they established a network of missions to convert the Indians to Catholicism and to focus their labor. (A euphemism for enslaving the Indians.) There were conflicting territorial claims between Carolina and Florida south of the Savannah River which was complicated by religion. The Protestant British and the Catholic Spanish loathed each other.

The Indians were resisting the loss of their ancestral lands, but they realized that in the end they could not defeat the Europeans. Many tribes allied themselves with the Europeans that they thought would give them the best deal. However, in the end, they always lost more land and more warriors.

In addition, all the Indian tribes had suffered from the endemic infectious diseases the Europeans carried, such as smallpox and VD. The Indians had no immunity to these diseases and had experienced extremely high mortality rates.

The British were organized into militia companies, but there was little in the way of a regular military presence. The French also had militia companies but had a 500-1,200-man professional defense force that was spread throughout New France. Florida was defended by only a few hundred regular Spanish troops.

The Colonists and the Indians were armed with smooth-bore muskets. The Indians also carried tomahawks and some bows. Colonial backwoodsmen also carried tomahawks, which was a very lethal and effective weapon in close quarters. The few fortifications were mostly wooden palisades, but most settlements had only individual fortified wooden houses. The only stone fortifications were St. Augustine, Boston, Quebec City, St. John’s, and Port Royal.

Queen Anne’s War was fought on four fronts:

1. In the South–Spanish Florida, British Carolina, and French Louisiana (Parts of present-day Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama.)
2. New England (Connecticut Colony, Rhode Island Colony, Providence Plantations, Massachusetts Bay Colony, Plymouth Colony, and New Hampshire Colony.), French Acadia (Nova Scotia), and Canada.
3. Newfoundland
4. Maritime.

The South

Portrait of Pierre Le Moyne d’Iberville-Queen Anne's War 1702-1713 — Portrait of Pierre Le Moyne d’Iberville

As early as the turn of the eighteenth century, prominent English and French colonists believed that control of the Mississippi River was key to future development and commerce. Both sides developed plans to achieve control and prevent the other’s access. After King William’s War, French Canandian explorer Pierre Le Moyne d’Iberville developed “Project sur la Caroline ” a plan to ally with the Indian tribes in the Mississippi watershed to force the English off the continent or at least to the coastal areas.

In pursuit of “Project sur la Caroline,” d’Iberville established Fort Maurepas near the mouth of the Mississippi River in 1699. He began to use this base and Fort Louis de la Mobile (established 1702) to make alliances with the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Natchez People, and other tribes.

The English in Carolina were also actively establishing trading networks across the southwestern part of the continent to the Mississippi River. They had little fear of the Spanish in Florida but recognized the threat posed by the French. Carolina governors Joseph Blake and James Moore planned expansion to the south and west to counter French and Spanish interests.

In January 1702, d’iberville asked the Spanish to organize Indian warriors to attack the English. In response, the Spanish organized a force commanded by Francisco Romo de Uriza which moved out in August to attack English trading centers. The English had warning, however, and prepared a defense at the head of the Flint River. They routed the Spanish and killed or captured 500 Indians.

After hearing of the hostilities, Carolina Governor Moore led a force of 500 soldiers, militia, and 300 Indians against Spanish Florida. They captured and burned the town of St. Augustine but were unable to take the fort. They withdrew when a Spanish fleet from Havana arrived.

The Apalachee and Timucua tribes in Florida were virtually wiped out in an expedition by Governor Moore. This raid became known as the Apalachee Massacre of 1704. Many of the survivors relocated to reservations in the Savannah River area.

In 1706, Carolina repulsed an attack on Charles Town by a combined Spanish and French amphibious force. The attack had originated in Havana.

The Muscogee (Creek), Yamasee, and Chickasaw were armed and led by English colonists. They dominated the French and Spanish Indian allies. English raids for the rest of the war were mainly conducted by Indians with a small number of whites and included major attacks on Pensacola in 1707 and Mobile in 1709.

New England, Acadia, and Canada

The French claimed the Acadia border was the Kennebec River in southern Maine and they and the Wabanaki Confederacy frustrated New England expansion into Acadia. In 1703, a few French Canadians and 500 Indians under the command of Michel Lenauf de la Valliere de Beaubassin attacked New England settlements along the coast. They killed or captured more than 300 settlers.

New Englanders were unable to defend against French raids, and many of the raids were to secure captives to be held for ransom. Families and communities struggled to raise ransoms. Children were usually adopted by Indian families and were assimilated into the tribes losing their identities. Many adults were sold into slavery.

In February 1704, fifty French Canadians and 250 Indians attacked Deerfield in Massachusetts Colony. They destroyed the settlement killing many and taking more than 100 captives. In August French and Indians raided Marlborough (now Westborough) taking many captives.

Artist Rendering of Benjamin Church-Queen Anne's War 1702-1713 — Artist Rendering of Benjamin Church

Despite their inability to defend their settlements, the New England colonists were able to retaliate. An Expedition commanded by famous Indian fighter Benjamin Church raided Grand Pre, Chignecto and other French settlements. Casualties were not reported.

French Priest Father Sebastien was believed to have incited the Norridgewock tribe against New England, so Massachusetts Governor Dudley put a price on his head. In the winter of 1705, the colony dispatched 275 militia under the command of Colonel Winthrop Hilton to Norridgewock to capture Sebastien and sack the village. The priest was warned about the raid and escaped but the English burned the village.

French and Wabanaki continued raiding northern Massachusetts Colony until the end of the war. The English were never able to mount a good defense against them.

In May 1707, Governor Dudley organized an expedition commanded by John March to take Port Royal. This 1,600-man force was unable to take the fort, and a follow-up attempt in August also failed. In October 1710, a force of 3,600 British and colonial troops led by Francis Nicholson captured Port Royal. This ended French control of the peninsular portion of Acadia. Resistance and raids along the Maine frontier by the French and Wabanaki continued until the end of the war. The remainder of Acadia (now eastern Maine and New Brunswick) remained disputed territory.

Artist Depiction of Iroquois Warriors-Queen Anne's War 1702-1713 — Artist Depiction of Iroquois Warriors

The French in the heartland of Canada opposed attacking New York because they did not want to arouse the Iroquois. They were more fearful of the Iroquois than the British. New York merchants were opposed to attacking New France because it would interrupt the highly profitable Indian fur trade. Much of this trade came through New France. Despite being pushed to fight, the Iroquois tried to remain neutral throughout the war.

Francis Nicholson and Samuel Vetch obtained assistance from the Queen for an assault against New France in 1709. The plan was for an overland assault on Montreal via Lake Champlain and a naval assault on Quebec. The plan was aborted when the promised naval support did not show up. The Iroquois were to support this attack but managed to delay until it was obvious the plan would fail. The organizers accompanied by Indian chiefs managed to obtain royal support for the successful capture of Port Royal and for another attack on Quebec in 1711.

The 1711 plan again called for land- and sea-based attacks but the execution was a disaster. Fifteen ships of the line and transports carrying 5,000 ground troops were under the command of Admiral Hovenden Walker. They arrived at Boston in June which doubled the city’s population. They sailed for Quebec in late July. Sailing in fog, an undisclosed number of ships foundered on the rocky shores near the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River. Seven hundred troops were lost, and Walker withdrew. Nicholson had reached Lake George when he was informed of the naval disaster. He also turned back.

The Iroquois had provided several hundred warriors for the Montreal expedition. However, they had also warned the French of the expedition, effectively playing both sides of the conflict.

Newfoundland

The Coast of Newfoundland was characterized by scattered French and English settlements, and seasonal European fishing stations. Principal towns were fortified–the French at Plaisance on the west side of the Avalon Peninsula and the British at St. John’s on Conception Bay. Most British settlements had been destroyed during King William’s War and the island again became a battleground.

In August 1702, a British fleet commanded by Commodore John Leake attacked vulnerable French settlements on the coast. The French retaliated during the winter when Governor Daniel d’Auger de Subercase led a French and Mi’kmaq force that destroyed several English settlements. They also unsuccessfully besieged Fort William at St. John’s.

The French and their allies continued harassment during the summer causing considerable damage. In 1706 the English sent a fleet that destroyed French fishing outposts on the northern coast. A French, Canadian and Mi’kmaq force in December 1708 captured St. John’s and destroyed the fortifications, however, they could not hold it and the British reoccupied it in 1709.

Maritime

In addition to the naval activity noted in the previous sections, French privateers based in Acadia and Placentia roamed American waters and dealt a severe blow to New England fishing and shipping industries. The privateers took 102 British prize ships into Placentia, second only to Martinique in the Caribbean. The British had not yet become master of the seas. Brittania did not rule the waves and the French were kicking their rear ends in the Americas.

Peace

Peace came in 1712 when Britain and France declared an armistice. Queen Anne’s War officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Britain won Acadia (Nova Scotia), sovereignty over Newfoundland, the Hudson Bay region, and the Caribbean Island of St. Kitts. France recognized British dominance over the Iroquois. They also agreed that commerce with Indians farther inland would be open to all. France retained the islands in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, including Cape Breton Island, and retained fishing rights in the area.

Portrait Royal Governor Joseph Dudley-Queen Anne's War 1702-1713 — Portrait Royal Governor Joseph Dudley

Once again, the treaty did not address Indian interests and concerns. The Abenaki had grown tired of war despite French prodding, and they made peace with New England. Governor Dudley of New Hampshire arranged a peace conference in Portsmouth. Negotiations took place there and at Casco Bay.

The Abenaki objected to the French ceding eastern Maine and New Brunswick to the British. They did agree to the boundary being the Kennebec River, and to government-run trading posts in their territory. Unbelievably the agreement gave the British sovereignty over Abenaki territory. This “Treaty of Portsmouth” was signed by eight Abenaki tribes on 13 July with others signing later. The Mi’kmaq never signed any treaty until 1726.

Results of Queen Anne’s War

Taken in its totality Queen Anne’s War accomplished little. The British gained some territory, but the inhabitants of that territory resisted for years. The French agreed to open the Mississippi River watershed to trade by all nations. The Indians lost ground and population again and were pushed farther west.

Although New England was the scene of much fighting, they suffered less economic damage than other areas because Boston became an important shipbuilding and trade center. In addition, the area experienced a financial windfall because of the Crown’s military spending in the area.

The economic costs of the war in the south were high, but there were insignificant territorial changes. The Indian population of Florida was decimated, and the network of Catholic missions was destroyed. The Spanish hold on Florida was permanently weakened.

British colonies of Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia saw little military action during the war but suffered economically. Shipping of their products (mainly tobacco) to Europe was less secure and more expensive and they had several bad harvests.

Just as in previous colonial wars, too many borders and other problems were left unresolved, and nobody was really satisfied with the outcome. The colonists generally ignored treaty agreements they didn’t like. The Indian tribes had again suffered significant casualties on behalf of their colonial allies with no rewards, and they had lost more of their territory to the colonists.

Continued instability in Europe, the encroachment of the colonists into each other’s and into Indian territory, and Indian unrest led to a resumption of low-level conflict. Another major war was inevitable.

May 1, 2022May 1, 2022

William Floyd Stepped Up in New York

William Floyd was a New York state politician and a wealthy Suffolk County farmer. He represented New York in the Continental Congress and was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. The signers mutually pledged their lives, fortunes and sacred honor and Floyd paid the price when the British destroyed his property. He served in the New York Senate and in 1789 he was elected to the first Congress under the United States Constitution serving until 1791.

William was the eldest child of a prosperous Long Island family of Welsh descent. He was born on 17 December 1734 in Brookhaven Township, which is now known as Mastic, Long Island. His parents were Nicholl Floyd and Tabitha Smith.

The Floyd family occupied a 4,400-acre farm that had been purchased by William’s grandfather from the Tangier Smith family about 1688. The house where William was born was built by his father in 1723.

Since the Floyd family was wealthy and well connected, William would be expected to receive the best education available; however, fate intervened. When he was 17 years old his father died and being the eldest son, he inherited the estate and the responsibility that accompanied it. William did an outstanding job of rapidly learning how to manage such a large estate and how to profit from his products and his tenant farmers.

Reconstructed Manor House-Mastic Long Island-William Floyd Stepped Up in New York — Reconstructed Manor House-Mastic Long Island

The property was highly productive with grains, forage, vegetables, orchards, and livestock. Since the property fronted on the Atlantic Ocean, William had a shipping dock for trade and for access to a variety of seafood. As estate owner, he dealt with a variety of trades people including carpenters, masons, farriers, and butchers. William’s education was a practical one. He thrived on his responsibilities and increased the family wealth and prestige.

As a successful, wealthy, and responsible landowner, William earned stature and influence in his community. The Floyd manor house welcomed an extensive circle of political and business connections as well as persons from other distinguished families. Many of the visitors had excellent formal educations and William absorbed much knowledge from them.

On 23 August 1760, William Floyd married Hannah Jones (or Johnes). Hannah was the daughter of William Jones of Southampton, Long Island. The couple had three children who all lived to adulthood. Little is known about Hannah, but we do know she was very patriotic and supportive of William’s political activities. She took over management of the estate because William’s political activities were requiring more time, and he was seldom home. She reportedly did an excellent job.

The 1763 Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years’ War in Europe and the French and Indian War in the American colonies; however, it ushered in the American march to revolution. The wars had been quite expensive for Britain and the Crown looked to new taxes on the colonies to recover some of the costs. New taxes were also meant to require the colonies to pay more for protection by the British military. The American colonial population did not agree with the taxing logic and resisted.

As relations with Britain continued to deteriorate, men like William Floyd began to become even more prominent in politics. Floyd became active in Eastern Long Island, particularly in the town of Brookhaven where he was a trustee and an officer in the local militia. In 1769 he was elected to the Provincial Assembly where he became acquainted with political figures from other parts of New York Colony.

Artist Depiction Battle of Lexington/Concord-William Floyd Stepped Up In New York — Artist Depiction Battle of Lexington/Concord

By 1775 relations with Britain had gotten worse and bloodshed occurred at the Battle of Lexington/Concord on 19 April. Soon after, Floyd was selected to be a New York delegate to the First Continental Congress. He became busy serving on several committees, and on 5 September he became colonel of the Western Regiment of Suffolk County Militia. Floyd split his time between congress and his military duties and kept the New York Provincial Congress informed on matters before the Continental Congress.

Floyd’s time in the Continental Congress was steady and supportive but he seldom spoke. South Carolina delegate Edmund Rutledge described Floyd as among the “good men who never quit their chairs.”

While General Washington, using the cannon Colonel Henry Knox had brought from Fort Ticonderoga, forced the British out of Boston, Congress was considering independence. New York had not instructed its delegation on the matter, so they were silent during the debate. They were unable to vote on Richard Henry Lee’s resolution for independence on 2 July or for the final draft on 4 July. They received instructions to vote for independence on 11 July, which resulted in a “unanimous declaration.” William Floyd and other delegates began signing the Declaration of Independence on 2 August 1776.

The British defeated Washington in the Battle of Long Island on 27 August 1776 and proceeded to overrun the entire island, including Floyd’s home during the next three months. Hannah Floyd barely had time to bury the family silver before the British soldiers arrived and destroyed the estate. Hannah, her three children, and a few neighbors fled across the island and sailed across Long Island Sound to Middletown, Connecticut to shelter with friends.

On 17 October 1776, William Floyd announced to Congress that “I am now going to try to get some of my effects from the island if it is possible, and shall be absent from Congress a few days, I beg you would excuse me as it is the first time I have absented myself.” Testament to the respect that Floyd had earned, Connecticut Governor Jonathon Trumbull sent an armed party across Long Island Sound to recover the remaining Floyd possessions.

Floyd never skimped on his responsibilities to his Militia unit or to Congress. He attained the military rank of Major General and served on several committees in Congress. He served a brief time in the New York Senate, but in January 1779 he was sent back to the Continental Congress.

Hannah Floyd died in Middletown on 16 May 1781 as a result of exposure, fatigue, stress, and unspecified illness. Apparently, the flight from their Long Island estate had long-term effects.

In 1783, after the war ended, Floyd returned to Long Island to find his estate consisted of ransacked buildings, desolate fields, uprooted trees, burned fences, lost livestock, and an unlivable house. He set to work to rebuild, but he also acquired land on the Mohawk River in Oneida County, which was in the frontier area of New York.

Widower William Floyd married Joanna Strong on 16 May1784. Joanna was the daughter of Benjah Strong and Martha Mills. William and Joanna had two children who both lived to maturity. Little is known about Joanna.

On 4 July 1787, Floyd was elected an honorary member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati. In March 1789, he was elected to the first United States Congress under the new Constitution serving until 3 March 1791. He was a presidential elector in 1792 voting for George Washington and George Clinton.

Floyd Manor House-Westernville, NY-William Floyd Stepped Up In New York — Floyd Manor House-Westernville, NY

The Long Island estate was transferred to William’s son Nicoll in 1794. William and family moved to the large tract of land in Oneida County that he had purchased about ten years previously. In the area now known as Westernville, he built a new home that was essentially a copy of the one at Mastic.

In 1795, Floyd ran for Lieutenant Governor of New York with Robert Yates on the Democratic-Republican ticket, but they were defeated by Federalists John Jay and Stephen Van Rensselaer. Floyd was a presidential elector in 1800, voting for Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr and in 1804 when he voted for Jefferson and George Clinton. ilr

Floyd was again chosen as a presidential elector in 1820 but he did not attend the Electoral College meeting. Age apparently was catching up with him. Martin Van Buren served in his place.

Floyd Grave-Westernville Cemetery-William Floyd Stepped Up In New York — Floyd Grave-Westernville Cemetery

Retirement to Oneida County was short for Floyd who died on 4 August 1821. He is buried in the Westernville Cemetery. Joanna Floyd died on 24 November 1826 and is buried next to William. The Floyd graves at Westernville are marked by a large rectangular monument with a plaque recognizing William as a signer that was attached by the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence. William is also memorialized by a large horizontal stone at the Floyd Cemetery at Mastic.

William Floyd is remembered in New York by a statue at the Chamber of Commerce at Mastic and Shirley, by the William Floyd school district, the William Floyd Armed Forces Memorial, and the town of Floyd. The Mastic property of Willam Floyd is now a part of the Fire Island National Seashore and is open to the public. Eight generations of Floyds have managed this 25-room mansion and property. The Westernville home is still occupied and in private hands.

April 15, 2022April 15, 2022

King William’s War-1689-1698

King William’s War was the North American theater of the Nine Years’ War in Europe. The events in Europe began in 1688 when England’s Catholic King James II was overthrown in the “Glorious Revolution.” England had a significant Catholic population but was overwhelmingly Protestant. The throne was taken by James’ daughter and her husband the Prince of Orange who were Protestants and jointly ruled as William III and Mary II. James fled to France; a Catholic nation ruled by Louis XIV. The King of France believed in the “divine right of kings” and did not believe in the right of any group to depose any monarch. Consequently, Louis welcomed James to his court and supported his claim to the English throne. ilr

The Nine Years War was primarily a struggle between Catholic France and Protestant England, although other nations were involved. The English, the Dutch Republic and the Holy Roman Empire formed an alliance known as the League of Augsburg to counter French military aggression.

The Nine Years War spilled into the New World where both France and England had colonies. Their North American colonies were already conflicted over boundaries and were struggling for control of North America, particularly the lucrative fur trade.

The predominantly Protestant English settlers numbered about 154,000 outnumbering the French by 12 to 1. The English advantage in numbers was, however, diluted by the fact that they were divided into multiple colonies along the Atlantic coast. Also, the English colonies did not cooperate very well, became engulfed in the Glorious Revolution, and lacked effective military leadership.

Catholic New France was more politically unified in three entities: Acadia on the Atlantic coast, Canada along the Saint Lawrence River up to the Great Lakes, and Louisiana from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico along the Mississippi River. The French population was disproportionally adult male with military backgrounds. Although both sides used allied Indian tribes as force multipliers, the French did it better and made more effective use of hit and run tactics.

The Indian tribes usually played both sides against the middle quite effectively, but the English allied with the Iroquois Confederacy and the French with the Wabanaki Confederacy. The Iroquois dominated the economically important Great Lakes fur trade and had been at war with the French since 1680 attempting to divert the fur trade from the French to the English.

Before we begin discussing the war, it is appropriate to review the world the North American settlers lived in. We read about the people and what they accomplished without realizing how dangerous colonial North America was. The country was wild and untamed and was inhabited by numerous Indian tribes that ranged from very warlike to peaceful. However, no Indian tribe wanted to be displaced from their ancestral lands.

Bison ranged into central Pennsylvania. Bear, mountain lions, and other dangerous predators were native to the entire continent. The land was often extreme and unforgiving to those unprepared and many new settlers died in the midst of plenty. The major cities such as New York, Philadelphia and Charleston were connected by crude road systems and waterways, often through wilderness. Frontier settlements were subject to raids by hostile Indian tribes. War and Indian raids were extremely brutal. Muzzle loading muskets became clubs after the first shot and fighting became hand-to-hand with knives, tomahawks, clubs, and fists. Only the bravest, toughest, and most fit survived and many of those died from disease.

Indians often killed slowly and cruelly, and the settlers responded with as much and even more cruelty. White children were often taken hostage and sold as slaves or integrated into the tribe thereby losing their identity.

We see the pictures of men wearing silk clothing and powdered wigs working in ornate surroundings, and women in flowing gowns, but they were the minority. Even these elite lived in conditions that we would consider primitive. The common people were mostly poor and lived in very crude and difficult conditions. I once read that in 1860 you were more likely to meet a violent death than you are to die in today’s combat. It was even worse in 1760.

Back to the war:

Map of Dominion of New England-King William's War-1689-1698 — Map of Dominion of New England

The northern English colonies had united as the Dominion of New England in 1686 and had been pushing their borders northward into New France. The French were countering by establishing Catholic missions in present day Maine.

In April 1688, St. Castin’s Trading House in Maine was plundered by English Governor Sir Edmund Andros. In retaliation the Baron de St. Castin and the Wabanaki began raids along the border of New England and Acadia.

Portrait of Sir Edmund Andros-King William's War-1689-1698 — Portrait of Sir Edmund Andros

On 13 February 1689, William III and Mary II officially replaced James II. When news of the Glorious Revolution reached New England in March talk began about overthrowing the Dominion of New England. In April, a mob in Boston overthrew Governor Andros but the organization survived.

On 17 May England declared war on France, which changed the American hostilities from localized incidents to serious war against committed enemies. The pace of killing increased significantly.

On 27 June 1689, French allies Abanaki and Pennacook Indians raided Dover, New Hampshire killing 20 and taking 29 captives who were sold into slavery. They also killed four men in Saco, Maine. The English raised 24 men to recover bodies and pursue the Indians but were forced to retreat after losing six.

Portrait of Baron St. Castin-King William's War-1689-1698 — Portrait of Baron St. Castin-

Baron St. Castin attacked New Dartmouth (Newcastle, Maine) on 13 August killing a “few.” This became the first “official” battle of King William’s War. Castin and Father Louis-Perry Thury led an Abanaki war party that destroyed the English fort at Pemaquid in Acadia, which was a serious tactical setback for the English. Castin then attacked Kennebunk, Maine killing two families.

Also in August, 1,500 Iroqouis warriors attacked the French settlement at Lachine, Quebec. Then Governor General Count Frontenac attacked the Iroquois village of Ononaga, New York. Casualties were not reported in either engagement but were probably high.

Portrait of Major Benjamin Church-King William's War-1689-1698 — Portrait of Major Benjamin Church

The English responded to French actions when Major Benjamin Church conducted the first of his four expeditions into Acadia. In September 1689, Church’s force of 250 soldiers moved to Falmouth to protect the English settlers from Wabanaki warriors. The Wabanaki killed 21 of Church’s men but he was able to force the Indians to retreat. Church then returned to Boston leaving the English settlers unprotected.

Artist Rendition of French and Indian Winter Attack-King William's War-1689-1698 — Artist Rendition of French and Indian Winter Attack

The French were much more aggressive and effective, and in the dead of winter 1690, Count Frontenac organized three expeditions into English territory. One into New York, one into New Hampshire and one into Maine. The progress of these expeditions was marked by plunder, burning and death.

The 8 February Schenectady, New York Massacre resulted in 60 killed. Thirty-four were killed in the attack on Salmon Falls, New Hampshire on 27 March. On 16 May at Falmouth, the French captured Fort Royal and killed at least 200 settlers who had survived the 1689 massacre. The fall of Fort Royal led to the near depopulation of Maine and exposure of New Hampshire to unopposed attacks.

Portrait of Sir William Phips-King William's War-1689-1698 — Portrait of Sir William Phips

The English responded with a force under the command of Sir William Phips attacking the capital of Acadia, Fort Royal on 9 May. Phips arrived with 736 New England men in seven English ships. Governor de Meneval defended for two days before capitulating The English destroyed the new fort, took control of the settlement, and forced the French inhabitants to declare their “allegiance” to the King of England.

Phips withdrew but more warships from New York City arrived in June. The English burned and looted the settlement before returning to New York. The French then moved the capital of Acadia to safer territory at Fort Nashwaak (present day Fredericton, New Brunswick). The capital was not returned to Fort Royal until 1699.

Benjamin Church’s second incursion into Acadia was in September 1690. He led 300 men to “reduce” the Indian population and relieve Fort Pejepscot (present day Brunswick, Maine). He attacked Fort Pejepscot and then attacked an Indian village at Livermore Falls killing three or four as they retreated. They then discovered five English captives and butchered six or seven Indians and took nine prisoners. The Wabanaki retaliated by attacking Church at Cape Elizabeth, Maine on Purpooduc Point. The Indians killed seven and wounded 24. Church withdrew to Portsmouth, New Hampshire.

Attempting to build on their success at Fort Royal, the English launched a two-pronged attack against French Canada in the fall of 1690. Phips assaulted Quebec with 2,200 Massachusetts troops and was repulsed. General Fitz-john Winthrop was targeted against Montreal with New York and Connecticut militia reinforced by Indian warriors. He failed due to disease and supply problems. The English never launched another major offensive during the war. They fell back to mainly defensive operations and retaliatory raids.

Portrait of Chief Madockawando-King William's War-1689-1698 — Portrait of Chief Madockawando-

The Candlemas Massacre, also known as the Raid on York, took place on 24 January 1692. Chief Madockawando and Father Louis-Perry Thury commanded 200-300 Indians that attacked York, Maine killing about 100 English settlers and capturing about 80. About 500 French and Indians attacked Wells, Maine on 10 June 1692, but the English defeated them after a 48-hour siege.

Benjamin Church launched his third campaign into Acadia in 1692 leading about 450 troops on raids in the Penobscot region of Maine. Casualties were not reported.

In the spring of 1692, the Salem, Massachusetts Witch Trials began in the midst of King William’s War. Some historians believe the trials were partly caused by the tension and stress of the war. This could be true but was not included in my research. Suffice it to say, Massachusetts was distracted from the war. The trials finally ended in 1693. Nineteen people had been hanged, one was pressed to death, and a handful died in jail awaiting trial.

King William’s War continued with mostly sporadic and minor contacts. However, on 18 July 1694, French Soldier Claude-Sebastien de Villieu led about 250 Indians that raided Durham, New Hampshire killing and capturing about 100 English settlers. They also burned about half the dwellings in what became known as the Oyster River Massacre. The French also raided York, Maine and Groton, Masachusetts slaughtering many.

In 1696, Castin and Wabanaki Warriors fought a naval battle in the Bay of Fundy and raided Pernaquid. They then began the Avalon Peninsula Campaign and destroyed nearly every English settlement in Newfoundland.

In retaliation, Church conducted his fourth campaign into Acadia. He attacked Fort Nashwaak, which was the capital of Acadia. He also raided Chignecto killing the inhabitants of that settlement.

On 15 March 1697, the French and Indians attacked Haverhill, Massachusetts Bay. Also, the war’s major naval battle, the Battle of Hudson Bay, occurred when one French ship defeated three English ships. The French went on to capture York Factory, an English settlement and important trading post.

The last battle of the war was the Battle of Damariscotta, Maine on 9 September 1697. English Captain John March led a force that killed 25 Indians.

The Nine Year’s War in Europe ended on 30 October 1697 when the Treaty of Ryswick was signed. The treaty stipulated that the North American borders between New France and the English colonies would remain unchanged. Some disputed territories were still left unresolved. King William’s War ended officially on 7 January 1699 when the Abenaki and Massachusetts Bay signed a peace treaty at Casco Bay, Maine.

The Iroquois Five Nations had suffered greatly during the war because of the weakness of their English allies. The French and their Indian allies had ravaged Iroquois towns and had destroyed their crops causing wide-spread hunger while the English remained passive.

Abandoned entirely by the English after the peace treaty, the Iroquois remained at war with New France until 1701. A peace agreement, known as the Great Peace of Montreal, made peace between New France, the Five Iroquois Nations, and more than 35 other Indian nations.

King William’s War unfortunately did not settle any of the problems of the competing colonial powers. English and French settlers continued to violate each other’s territory. In addition, the French, English and Spanish still hated each other. This hatred came from their European roots and their open warfare in North America. Settlers clashing over land and forcing Indians from their ancestral lands made for a very volatile world. This continued unrest and friction resulted in the outbreak of the next war, Queen Anne’s War in 1702.

No matter who said it first, the following quote fits here: “only the dead have seen the end of war.”

April 1, 2022April 1, 2022

Caesar Rodney-Delaware’s Finast

Statue Caesar Rodney in US Capitol-Caesar Rodney- Delaware's Best — Statue Caesar Rodney in US Capitol

Caesar Rodney was an American hero who neglected his own health to serve in many Continental and state positions. His lifetime struggle with severe asthma and deforming cancer would have relegated most men to the sidelines. He died young but accomplished much including signing the Declaration of Independence. He was a militia officer during the French and Indian War and the Revolutionary War and was president of Delaware during most of the Revolution. His overnight ride to vote on the Declaration was the stuff of legends.

Caesar Rodney was born on 7 October 1728 on the family plantation, Poplar Grove (Byfield today), located on St. Jones Neck in East Dover Hundred in Kent County, Delaware. He was the eldest son of eight children of Caesar Rodney and Elizabeth Crawford.

The only formal education young Caesar Rodney received was at the Latin School in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, which ended when his father died in 1746. At age 17, he was the oldest male and therefore heir to his father’s estate. He became responsible for the care of his mother and siblings, and for managing Poplar Grove plantation. Poplar Grove was already a successful and prosperous farm, and the Rodneys were influential members of the local gentry. Caesar was also placed under the guardianship of Nicholas Ridgely, a prominent citizen of Dover, Delaware. It is believed that Ridgely was the source of Rodney’s interest in politics.

We know that Caesar’s health was terrible. He was tormented his entire life by severe asthma and during his adult life he suffered from a facial cancer. He underwent expensive, painful, and totally futile medical treatments for the cancer. Rodney always wore a green scarf to hide his disfigured face. Despite his health problems, he put all his energy into becoming the single most valuable and productive citizen in Delaware.

Eighteenth century Delaware was socially and politically divided and volatile. There were two major political parties. The majority Court Party worked well with the colonial government and favored reconciliation with Britain. The minority Country Party favored independence. Despite being members of the gentry, Caesar and his brother Thomas identified with the Country Party.

The political career of Caesar Rodney began in 1755 when he was appointed sheriff of Kent County. After serving three years he was appointed and elected to many more positions, including Register of Wills, Recorder of Deeds, Clerk of the Orphan’s Court, Justice of the Peace, and judge in the lower courts. He was commissioned captain in the Dover Hundred militia company during the French and Indian War.

Caesar was a delegate to the Stamp Act Congress in 1765 and was a leader of the Delaware Committee of Correspondence. He was Speaker of the Delaware Assembly when Delaware voted to sever all ties with Britain on 15 June 1776. From 1769 through 1777, he was an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the Lower Counties.

Thomas McKean, George Read and Caesar Romney served in the Continental Congress from 1774 through 1776. Rodney’s most famous exploit occurred during the debate on the Declaration of Independence. Richard Henry Lee introduced his resolution for independence on 7 June 1776, which resulted in weeks of contentious debate. Unanimous consent on independence was eluding the congress, so they recessed. During the recess, the Delaware State Assembly released their delegates to vote their individual judgment.

Artist Depiction of Rodney ride to Philadelphia-Caesar Rodney-Delaware's Finest — Artist Depiction of Rodney ride to Philadelphia

Rodney was in Delaware dealing with militia and Loyalist problems. In Philadelphia, the Delaware vote on independence was deadlocked with McKean “for” and Read “against.” McKean sent a courier to Rodney advising him of the deadlock and he immediately left for Philadelphia. He rode all night through a torrential rainstorm and arrived at Congress on 2 July 1776 muddy, wet, and fatigued but “booted and spurred.” The 80-mile trip had taken eighteen hours and unfortunately Rodney also arrived seriously ill. He broke the Delaware tie which led to the unanimous vote for independence on 4 July 1776. All three Delaware delegates signed the Declaration of Independence in August.

Caesar’s own account of his ride and vote was contained in a letter to Thomas which reads: “I arrived in Congress (tho detained by thunder and rain) time enough to give my voice in the matter of independence…We have now got through the whole of the declaration and ordered it to be printed so that you will soon have the pleasure of seeing it.”

Loyalist Sentiment in Kent County was strong so Rodney’s vote earned him rejection. He lost his attempt to join the state legislature and was not returned to the Continental Congress.

Rodney’s friend John Haslet was killed while rallying troops during the 3 January 1777 Battle of Princeton, New Jersey. (The Battles of Trenton [26 December 1776] and Princeton were major morale boosters for the Continentals before they went into winter quarters.) Despite his poor health, Rodney rushed to the Continental Army to fill Haslet’s place, but his friend General Washington believed he would be more useful in Delaware.

Caesar Rodney served as Delaware’s wartime governor and as major general of the Delaware Militia. The militia was busy dealing with conflicts between Loyalist and Patriot groups in the state and defending against the many British incursions. The British Navy often sailed into Delaware’s many rivers foraging for food, intelligence, and to press men into service. The British also occupied northern Delaware, and at the request of General Washington, Rodney took field command to oppose them. Also, under Rodney’s leadership, Delaware had a record of exceeding its quotas of troops and provisions for the Continental Army.

In October 1777 Rodney and McKean were returned to the Continental Congress, and Rodney was elected President of Delaware in March 1778. Ratification of the Articles of Confederation was quite contentious in Delaware and consumed much of his flagging energy. Rodney was quite frail. Poor health was catching up with this man who was giving his all to the birth of the nation.

Rodney was elected to the United States Congress under the Articles of Confederation in 1782 and 1783 but was too ill to attend. He was elected to the Delaware Legislative Council in 1783 and as a final gesture of respect he was appointed speaker. The Council met in Caesar’s home because of his rapidly failing health, but he died before the session ended.

Rodney Grave Monument-Dover Christ Episcopal Church Cemetery-Caesar Rodney-Delaware's Finest — Rodney Grave Monument-Dover Christ Episcopal Church Cemetery

Caesar Romney died on 26 June 1784 and was buried at his beloved home of Poplar Grove on Byfield plantation. There is a large grave marker for Caesar at Dover Christ Episcopal Church Cemetery, but it is believed a relative is buried there. Most historians believe that Caesar is buried in an unmarked grave in the unmarked family plot at Poplar Grove just east of present-day Dover Air Force Base. He was never married, and willed his estate to his nephew, Caesar Augustus Rodney. The will also provided for the gradual freedom of his Poplar Grove slaves.

Rodney’s health was bad his entire life. He had severe asthma and endured disfiguring and painful facial cancer for years. Under those circumstances, most men would have withdrawn from the public eye. Rodney, however, immersed himself in service including serving in Congress, and serving in the military during wartime. No Delaware citizen in history has come close to holding the number of significant offices that Caesar Rodney held during his career. Rodney literally worked himself to death helping to found the United States of America.

There are no known portraits of Caesar Rodney, and we have only two reliable descriptions of him. His brother Thomas described him as having “a great fund of wit and humor of the pleasing kind, so that his conversation was always bright and strong and conducted by wisdom…” The only physical description of Caesar was an entry in the diary of John Adams in September 1774. Adams wrote: “Saturday…this forenoon Mr. Caesar Rodney of the lower counties on Delaware River..was introduced to us. Caesar Rodney is the oddest looking man in the world; he is tall, thin and slender as a reed, pale; his face is not bigger than a large apple, yet there is sense and fire, spirit, wit and humor in his countenance.”

Rodney Statue Being Removed-Wilmington, Delaware-Caesar Rodney-Delaware's Finest — Rodney Statue Being Removed-Wilmington, Delaware

A statue of Rodney represents Delaware in Statuary Hall in the U.S. Capitol. A large equestrian statue of Rodney, memorializing his famous ride, is in Rodney Square in downtown Wilmington, Delaware. (This statue was removed in July 2020 to “protect” it and to allow a “discussion” on monuments of slave owners.) A Delaware school district is named after him.

Caesar Rodney was a true American patriot whose real monument cannot be removed by those who desecrate statues of patriots and seek to rewrite history. Rodney’s real monument and legacy are his signature on the Declaration of Independence, and other contributions to the cause of freedom that all Americans, including the statue desecraters and removers, still enjoy.

Signers of the Declaration of Independence-Trumbull-Caesar Rodney-Delaware's Finest — Signers of the Declaration of Independence-Trumbull

March 15, 2022March 15, 2022

Early Colonial Indian Wars

On 6 March 2022, I published an article entitled “King Philip’s War 1675-1678,” which was an early bloody and destructive Indian war in New England. Conflict between early settlers and Indigenous Indian tribes was inevitable. The settler’s numbers always increased, and they pushed the Indians west.

I did some further research after the King Philip’s War article and found it was the first in a series of five Indian wars between 1675 and 1763. During that time most Indian leaders realized that the settlers would eventually overwhelm them, so many allied their tribes with warring European powers to earn a better deal. These alliances did not get them a better deal. The alliances cost the lives of many warriors and they were still pushed out of their land.

To put the above into perspective, I am posting a slightly modified version of “King Philip’s War.” During the next four months I will publish articles on King William’s War-1688-1689, Queen Anne’s War 1702-1713, King George’s War 1744-1748 and culminating in the bloodiest of all, The French and Indian War 1754-1763.

These five wars decimated or annihilated many Indian tribes, but many European soldiers and settlers also died. Unfortunately, the wars were also precursors to the many Indian wars the United States would experience until the late nineteenth century.

King Philip’s War

The 1675-1676 King Philip’s War was a conflict between the New England Colonies and the Wampanoag Indian tribe. Also known as Metacom’s War or the First Indian War, it was the single greatest disaster of 17th century New England. In proportion to population, it was the deadliest war in American history. The war was brutal and bloody. It resulted in the virtual elimination of several Indian tribes and the total destruction of many colonial settlements. It was the last major effort by the Indian tribes to drive the colonists out of New England. The war officially ended with the Treaty of Casco Bay in April 1678.

This war is named for Metacomet, the Wampanoag chief who adopted the name Philip because of the friendly relations between his father and the Pilgrims. When the Pilgrims settled Plymouth Colony in 1620, they tried to maintain good relations with the native population. The Wampanoag was the first tribe to contact the settlers and they were able to build exceptionally good relations with them. They peacefully traded and exchanged information and gifts.

Relations began to be strained as a flood of new people began to settle in New England. Unlike the Pilgrims and Puritans who were escaping religious persecution, the new settlers were mostly motivated by profit, which is a not terrible thing, but resulted in a push into Indian lands. The colonies of Rhode Island and Connecticut were founded and as the population rose the Indians could see that they were rapidly losing ground. Also, the critical communication between the early religious settlers and the Indians was being diluted by the greater number of settlers. The Indians were a proud people and greatly resented the intrusions. They were beginning to realize that resistance was their only option.

Another factor leading up to war was that King Philip became chief when his older brother, Alexander died. Alexander had been arrested by the English on suspicion that he was planning a war against the colonists. Alexander pledged his loyalty and was released but he had contracted an illness while in Plymouth and died on the way home. Many Wampanoag believed he had been poisoned by the colonists.

After Philip became chief in 1671, the colonists believed he was planning to avenge Alexander’s death. There was no evidence to support this belief and shows that the colonists were becoming paranoid about Indian intentions. Colonists summoned Philip to Taunton, Massachusetts where they demanded he sign a treaty that required his tribe to surrender their arms. Philip signed.

A series of incidents in January 1675 set loose the dogs of war. John Sassamon, a Christian Indian told Plymouth’s governor, Josiah Winslow, that King Philip was planning attacks against the colony. Winslow was slow to react, and on 29 January Sassamon was found dead. An Indian informant claimed he witnessed three Wampanoags murder him. The colonists arrested the three and tried and executed them on 8 June. War began soon afterward.

King Philip led a confederation of his tribe and several other tribes including the Nipmucks, Narragansetts and Pocumtucks. The Mohawks and Mohegans allied with the colonists. The colonists were a New England Confederation of the Massachusetts Colony, New Haven Colony, Plymouth Colony and Connecticut Colony.

Artist Depiction of Indian Attack-King Philip's War — Artist Depiction of Indian Attack-

Hostilities began on 20 June 1675 when a band of Pokanoket warriors attacked homesteads in the Plymouth Colony settlement of Swansea. They laid siege to the town and destroyed it five days later killing several people. Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay sent a punitive force that destroyed the Wampanoag town of Mount Hope. Skirmishes and small raids continued through June.

On 2 August, Nipmucks ambushed a colonial military unit before attacking Brookfield, Massachusetts and laying siege to the survivors of the ambush. The Indians were driven away two days later by colonial reinforcements. Seven colonists were killed near Lancaster, Massachusetts on 22 August and on 25 August, a three-hour battle near Hatfield, Massachusetts resulted in the deaths of 40 Indians and several soldiers.

Artist Depiction of Pending Ambush -King Philip's War — Artist Depiction of Pending Ambush

On 1 September, Wampanoag and Nipmuck warriors raided Deerfield, Massachusetts and the next day attacked Northfield, Massachusetts. A relief force commanded by Captain Richard Beers was dispatched to Northfield, but they were ambushed on 4 September losing about 21 killed including Captain Beers. On 18 September Captain Thomas Lathrop was leading 80 men to Deerfield and was ambushed near Northampton. Lathrop and at least 60 of his men were killed.

In October, a Massachusetts Bay militia unit was ambushed by Nipmucks at Bloody Brook with unknown casualties. The next Indian target was Springfield, Massachusetts, the largest settlement on the Connecticut River. The Indians burned most of the town causing settlers to take shelter. Reinforcing militia managed to drive off the Indians.

In December, Plymouth Colony governor Winslow led a force of about 1,000 militia and Indian allies against the Narragansett who were wintering at a fort in a frozen swamp. Known as the Great Swamp Fight, Winslow’s force killed about 600 Indians, burned their fort, and destroyed most of their winter stores.

King Philip established winter quarters with about 500 warriors in New York. The Mohawks launched a surprise attack against Philip in February 1676 and killed more than 70 Wampanoag. Philip withdrew his crippled force to New England. The Mohawks pursued Philip and attacked Algonquian settlements along the way.

On 10 February 1676, about 400 Nipmucks attacked Lancaster, Massachusetts killing more than 30 colonists. Twenty-four colonists were taken prisoner, including the minister’s wife and child. Four days later, King Philip and his remaining warriors attacked Northampton, Massachusetts. They killed a few colonists and burned many homes.

On 21 February, about 300 Nipmucks infiltrated Medfield, Massachusetts during the night and fired on the inhabitants as they emerged in the morning. They burned between 40 and 50 homes. On 25 February, the town of Weymouth, Massachusetts was attacked and partially burned.

March of 1676 was a highly active month for the Indians. On 12 March, warriors attacked William Clark’s garrison at Eel River near Plymouth killing eleven. The Indians also captured the garrison’s provisions, guns, and ammunition, and burned the garrison. The next day, Nipmucks attacked Groton, Massachusetts killing one and burning 65 homes. Refugees leaving the town were ambushed and two more were killed.

On 17 March, Warwick, Rhode Island was destroyed, and on 26 March Longmeadow and Marlborough, Massachusetts were attacked. Nipmucks attacked colonial forces near Sudbury, Massachusetts on 27 March. The next day Indians attacked Rehoboth, Massachusetts (now named Seekonk). They burned 40 homes and 30 barns and killed one resident. On 29 March Providence, Rhode Island was attacked, and all 30 homes of the town were burned. No colonials were killed.

The Indian tribes had been on the offense for nearly a year, and it had begun to take a toll on them. They were unable to hunt or raise crops and some were starving. They were also running out of shot and gunpowder. Many began to doubt they could defeat the colonists and were deserting and surrendering.

The colonists had access to supplies from other colonies and England, which gave them a significant tactical advantage over the Indians, particularly in the case of a long war.

In April, Canonchet, the chief of the Narragansett Tribe was captured by Captain Dennison’s company. The colonists handed Canonchet over to his Mohegan enemies who brutally executed him. He was shot, beheaded, and quartered. His head was presented to the Hartford Council as a token of loyalty.

About 500 Algonquins attacked Sudbury on 21 April and a force of 60 colonial soldiers pursued them when they withdrew. However, the soldiers were trapped when the Indians set fire to the grass and 30 were killed.

Artist Depiction-Assault on the Narragansett Fort-King Philips War — Artist Depiction-Assault on the Narragansett Fort

Captain William Turner with 150 soldiers attacked an Indian camp at Turner’s Falls in the Battle of Great Falls on 18-19 May. They killed about 200 Indians with a loss of 38 killed. On 20 May, Indians attacked Scituate, Massachusetts. In retaliation for the Battle of Great Falls, Indians attacked Hatfield, Massachusetts on 30 May and killed seven colonists.

On 12 June, Indians attacked Hadley, Massachusetts but were repulsed by a unit of Connecticut soldiers. During the battle, a band of Mohawks raided the attacker’s camp and killed Wampanoag and Narragansett women and children.

The colonists were feeling the effects of constant war and on 19 June, Massachusetts issued a declaration of amnesty for any Indians who would surrender.

In July, Philip and his Wampanoag warriors returned to the Pocasset region where the war had begun. Despite the efforts of colonial soldiers, the indians were able to evade them by hiding in the woods and swamps.

On 1 July, Major Talcott’s Connecticut Allied Force attacked the Narragansetts at Nipsachuck, Rhode Island killing 171 Indians. Two days later, a massacre of Indians took place near Warwick, Rhode Island. Eighty Narragansett warriors surrendered and were slaughtered by Major Talcott’s troops.

Indians attacked Taunton on 15 July but were repulsed. That same day, the Ninigrit and Niantic tribes formally signed a peace treaty with Massachusetts Bay.

Captain Benjamin Church’s unit was searching the Plymouth area to find Philip. They found his camp near Bridgewater and attacked it on 20 July. Philip escaped but his wife and son were captured and sold into slavery in the West Indies.

On 25 July, the Narragansett were defeated near Dedham, Massachusetts. On the same day, about 180 Nipmucks surrendered in Boston, Massachusetts.

By late summer of 1676, the fighting was slowly ending, but King Philip was still at large, and the war would never completely end until he was killed or captured. In August, an Indian deserter informed Captain Church that Philip was in an old Wampanoag village called Montaup near Mount Hope. Church led a company of troops to Montaup and found Philip and his small band of warriors. The spot later became known as King Philip’s Seat.

Artist Depiction of King Philip's Head on Pike-King Philip's War — Artist Depiction of King Philip’s Head on Pike

Philip attempted to flee during the fighting but an Indian named John Alderman serving in Church’s company saw Philip, fired, and killed him. Alderman beheaded Philip and sold his head to Plymouth authorities for 30 shillings, which was the going rate for Indian heads during the war.

Philip’s head was placed on a stake in the village where it remained for 25 years. One of his hands was sent to Boston for display and the four quarters of his body were placed in trees where they hung until they rotted away.

The war did not end with the death of Philip and fighting spread to the north of New England. Random raids and skirmishes continued until the treaty was signed at Casco Bay in April 1678. Scattered warfare continued in northern New England, mostly because of the interference of the French. This was not corrected until the French and Indian War in 1754-1763 pushed the French out of the area.

King Philip’s War was bloody, brutal, and destructive. Its effect on both sides was disastrous. More than 600 colonists had been killed, about 1,200 homes had been burned, and about 12 of 90 settlements were destroyed. The New England economy was essentially destroyed by nearly halting all trade including the fur trade, killing 8,000 head of cattle, and causing a decline in the fishing industry. The cost of the war was about 80,000 pounds which led to high taxes. All these factors virtually halted English expansion in New England for nearly 50 years.

The effect on the Indian tribes was far worse. Their total population of about 20,000 in southern New England at the start of hostilities was drastically reduced. Their minimum losses were about 2,000 killed, about 3,000 died of sickness and starvation, about 1,000 were captured and sold into slavery, and about 2,000 fled west to join the Iroquois and north to join the Abenaki. Many of the smaller tribes no longer existed as organized communities.

Despite the disastrous effects of the war, it was a turning point in the area. The colonists had eliminated their opposition and gained complete control of Southern New England. This allowed unopposed settlement, which contributed to the eventual economic recovery and expansion.

The colonists successful defense of the area with their own resources caught the attention of the British government which had dismissed the American colonies as just poor outposts. This new interest resulted in more exploitation of American resources and a restructuring of the charters of the colonies

Unfortunately, bloody conflicts between Indians and settlers would be repeated many times during the next 200 plus years. Since the dawn of time when a group begins to migrate for any reason into an area already occupied it ends up in war. If you study European history, you find an unrelenting movement west usually resulting in war and the near extinction of one side or the other. Most people move because of persecution or the inability of local agriculture to support them. Such reasons are legitimate, but resistance by those who already occupy an area is also legitimate. It is the dilemma of an irresistible force meeting an immovable object and it rarely happens peacefully.

March 1, 2022March 1, 2022

New York’s Philip Livingston-Founding Father

Founding Father Philip Livingston is not widely known, but he was a successful New York City merchant, a philanthropist, a New York politician, a statesman, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. He represented New York in the First and Second Continental Congresses, and like many Patriots, did not initially favor separation from Britain. However, when attempts to reach an accommodation were spurned by King George III, he became a Revolutionary. Livingston died unexpectedly while attending the sixth session of Congress in York, Pennsylvania.

Philip Livingston was born into the wealthy and politically important Hudson River Livingston family on 15 January 1716 at Albany, New York. He was the fourth surviving son of Philip Livingston (1686-1749), 2nd Lord of the Manor; and Catherine Van Brugh daughter of Albany mayor, Captain Pieter Van Brugh.

The Livingstons traced their American lineage back to Robert Livingston, a native of Scotland who immigrated to the New World in 1672. Robert’s father, Reverend John Livingston, and family were exiled from Scotland to the Netherlands in 1663 for refusing to pledge allegiance to English King Charles II. Nine years later, Robert returned to Scotland following his father’s death and migrated to the New World. Fluent in English and Dutch, he settled in Albany in New York Colony.

Robert Livingston enriched himself in the fur trade and was respected by both the old Dutch families and the English who had taken over the colony in 1664. He married Alida Schuyler van Rensselaer, which established him in the aristocracy of colonial New York. The New York governor granted him the “lordship and Manor of Livingston” which consisted of 160,000 acres near Albany. His son Philip was 2nd Lord of the Manor and Philip’s eldest son, Robert, was the 3rd Lord of the manor.

Philip and his younger brother, William, grew up in the Albany area dividing time between an Albany townhouse and the Manor House in Linlithgo. The Manor House was located at the junction of Roeliff Jansen Kill and the Hudson River. This area is now part of the town of Livingston, New York.

Since Philip was not the eldest son, he was not heir to the family fortune and had to establish a career of his own. He graduated from Yale in 1737 and returned to Albany to serve a mercantile apprenticeship with his father. Through his father’s influence, he became active in local government.

Portrait of Christina Ten Broeck-New York's Philip Livingston-Founding Father — Portrait of Christina Ten Broeck

On 14 April 1740, Philip married Christina Ten Broeck. She was the daughter of Colonel Birck Ten Broeck and Margarita Cuyler and the sister of Albany Mayor Abraham Ten Broeck. This marriage established Philip in the old Dutch community, which helped his career. Philip and Christina had nine children, five boys and four girls.

Like many of his relatives, Philip settled in New York City where he entered the import business, trading with British sugar plantations in the West Indies. He made the bulk of his fortune during King George’s War (1744-1748) provisioning and privateering. He also speculated heavily in real estate and the slave trade. Philip maintained a townhouse in Manhattan and a forty-acre estate in Brooklyn Heights.

Philip became highly active in New York City politics and development. He was a promoter of the founding of Kings College (Columbia University today) and helped organize the New York library. He founded the first Chamber of Commerce and was president and founding member of the St. Andrew’s Society, which was New York’s first benevolent organization. He was one of the first governors of New York Hospital.

In 1754 Philip became a delegate to the Albany Congress, and also served as a New York City Alderman from 1754 through 1762, His service to the colony and his successful import business earned Philip the respect and admiration of his peers. In 1755, Sir Charles Hardy, Royal Governor of the Province of New York wrote: “among the considerable merchants in this city, no one is more esteemed for energy, promptness and public spirit than Philip Livingston.”

As a Congressional delegate, Philip joined with other colonies to negotiate with their Indian allies to develop plans for dealing with the French and Indian War (1754-1763). He supported the war and helped efforts to raise and fund troops.

Philip served in the Provincial House of Representatives from 1763 to 1769. In 1765 he attended the Stamp Act Congress and joined New York City’s Committee of Correspondence. New York established their Provincial Congress in 1775. Philip was president of the Congress and was selected to attend the Continental Congress.

In July 1775, Philip signed the Olive Branch Petition, which was a final attempt to negotiate with the Crown. Like many others, he did not initially support a total break with Britain, but when King George III refused to negotiate, Philip became a revolutionary, and was a strong advocate for independence. He voted for the Declaration of Independence on 4 July 1776 and signed the final copy in August.

Philip’s brother, William, was a delegate to the Continental Congress from New Jersey where he was a prominent lawyer. He served in Congress from 1774 to June 1776 when he was called to command the New Jersey militia and missed signing the Declaration. William went on to become the first Governor of New Jersey and a signer of the Constitution.

Robert R. Livingston was a first cousin once removed of Philip and was also a New York delegate to the Continental Congress. He was a member of the Committee of Five who drafted the Declaration, but other duties prevented him from being present for the signing. He became the first Chancellor of New York and administered the oath of office to President George Washington on his first inauguration.

Artist Depiction of Brooklyn Heights Estate-New York's Philip Livingston-Founding Father — Artist Depiction of Brooklyn Heights Estate

Adoption of the Declaration of Independence was a giant political step, but the war was not going very well. British General Howe was conducting a major campaign to capture New York City. Following the massive and successful British attack on Long Island, Washington and his officers met in Philip’s Brooklyn Heights estate to discuss the military options. Their decision was to make a strategic withdrawal from Long Island and to abandon New York City.

When the British occupied New York City in late August 1776, Philip and his family fled to Kingston, New York where he maintained another residence. The British used the Livingston’s townhouse as a barracks and the Brooklyn Heights residence as a Royal Navy hospital. Later, the British burned Kingston to the ground as they did the Robert R. Livingston mansion, Clermont, across the Hudson River.

The New York State Constitution was adopted in April 1777 and Philip was chosen as a senator for the southern district. He also continued to sit in the Continental Congress. The British military had forced the Congress out of Philadelphia, and they had reconvened in York, Pennsylvania. Philip was attending the sixth session of Congress in York on 12 June 1778 when he suddenly died. He had suffered from dropsy (congestive heart failure) for several years and his health began to deteriorate significantly about a year before his death.

Philip Livingston was buried in the Prospect Hill Cemetery in York. His estate was not sufficient to pay his debts and his executors renounced the administration of the estate. In recognition of his loyal service to the state and the nation, on 25 February 1785, the New York legislature passed an act that authorized the state to settle the estate and pay off all the debts. This was quite an exceptional tribute to Philip and showed the great affection and respect New York had for him.

Philip Livingston Gravesite-New York's Philip Livingston-Founding Father — Philip Livingston Gravesite-

Philip’s name is engraved on one of the 56 granite blocks in the memorial on the National Mall in Washington, DC that honors the signers of the Declaration of Independence. His grave in Prospect Hill Cemetery is marked by an obelisk erected by his grandson Stephen Van Rensselaer. Part of the engraving states: “Eminently distinguished for his talents and rectitude, he deservedly enjoyed the confidence of his country and the love and veneration of his friends and children.” A DAR marker identifies him as a “soldier of the Revolutionary War.” In 2005, the Descendants of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence attached a plaque to the obelisk to recognize him as a signer.

February 15, 2022February 15, 2022

The second Revolution-The War of 1812

The 1783 Treaty of Paris ended the American War for Independence, but it left some important situations unaddressed, and the British generally ignored American sovereignty and international rights. The most significant attempt to address this situation was the 1794 Jay’s Treaty, but it was domestically unpopular because it favored the British. The main value of the Jay Treaty was that it temporarily averted a war that the newly established United States was ill-prepared for. Continued British violations and harassment eventually led to the War of 1812. Winning this war firmly established the sovereignty and identity of the United States of America.

The American Revolutionary War was a world war involving all the world’s major monarchies. Allied with America against Britain were France, Spain, and the Netherlands. Monarchies are not usually big fans of revolts, but the American allies saw the Revolution as an opportunity to weaken Britain. They were concerned that Britain was becoming the most prosperous, powerful, and far-flung empire in the world.

Despite the agreements made in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, the British did not really accept American independence, and like most of the world expected the American experiment in democracy to fail. However, the British knew that peace was desirable to end the excessive costs of a distant war and to rebuild the highly profitable trade with the Americas. They also knew trade would survive if the American government failed because Britain would step in and reestablish their colonial government.

Artist Depiction of Indian Attack-The Second Revolution-War of 1812 — Artist Depiction of Indian Attack

The British illegally maintained forts and military forces in the American fronter and with their Indian allies regularly raided American settlements. In international waters, the powerful Royal Navy harassed American merchant ships. These and other matters were addressed in international negotiations over the years, but the British always outmaneuvered the Americans. The core problem of no British respect of the United States as a sovereign nation was never faced head-on.

In 1793 the British and other European powers found it necessary set aside their differences to ally against France. War with France was nothing new for Britain, but the master of war Nepoleon was another matter. Nepoleon was not defeated until the 1815 epic battle of Waterloo.

For Britain, the Napoleonic wars were expensive and bloody and overlapped the War of 1812 against the Americans. At the start of the European conflict, the United States declared international rights of neutrality, but the British intercepted and seized American merchant ships trading with France and impressed American sailors.

The infant United States of America was like a dwarf among giants. The new nation was militarily and economically weak, had not developed a common identity, and was torn by bitter political partisanship. The Federalists and Antifederalists parties were trying to destroy each other by any means.

Portrait of General George Washington-The Second Revolution-The War of 1812 — Portrait of General George Washington

President George Washington had warned against political parties and foreign alliances, but politicians had ignored his advice. Washington did, however, provide stability, honor, and order to the first eight years of government. Without Washington there is a good chance that the government would have failed.

The end of the Revolutionary War had been hailed by most Americans because they were tired of war, but the first government under the Articles of Confederation was weak and ineffective. Also, despite the 1788 ratification of the Constitution of the United States, common people were not affected by it much initially.

There was a general feeling of instability and worry about the future among the American people even though some saw the possibilities and were starting what eventually became an economic surge. Common people were mostly uneducated and concerned with everyday problems. They did not think much about the lofty ideals and principles that the founders did. They dealt in survival and the reality of the moment, and information moved slowly, particularly on the frontier.

As previously stated, Americans had not yet developed a national identity, which is necessary for a viable and stable nation. Americans were divided by section, religion, background, and socioeconomic standing. The country was also experiencing a flood of new immigrants. The War had violently pitted Loyalist against Patriot and the scars were slow to heal. Many, especially new immigrants, were moving into the dangerous frontier lured by the promise of cheap land, but they risked conflict with the British and their Indian allies. The new American government was not capable of protecting the settlers.

The British did not live up to the provisions of the Treaty of Paris, but to be fair, neither did the Americans. Despite agreements to honor the rights of Loyalists and to allow them to sue to recover lost property, confiscation of Loyalist property became a cottage industry. Loyalists who had not fled during the war often faced violent acts of revenge.

George Washington was the first President of the United States. He served from 1789 to 1797 when he began a well-deserved retirement. After Washington, politics became bitterly partisan, but each early administration contributed to the development of the America we know today.

The following is a summary of the major accomplishments of the next three administrations to chronicle what was being accomplished leading up to and during the War of 1812.

Portrait of John Adams-The Second Revolution-The War of 1812 — Portrait of John Adams

After a bitter campaign, Washington was succeeded by John Adams of Massachusetts who served one term 1797 to 1801. Adams’ vice president was his major opponent, Thomas Jefferson. At that time the runner-up was elected to that office. This rule was not changed until the 12th Amendment to the Constitution in 1804.

The Adams administration was known for reason, moral leadership, rule of law, compassion, and a cautious but active foreign policy. He led the country through Fries’s Tax Rebellion, and the largely naval Quasi-War with France. He expanded the military and successfully avoided a major war. He signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Act, which was an attack on constitutional rights, particularly free speech.

Portrait of Thomas Jefferson-The Second Revolution-The War of 1812 — Portrait of Thomas Jefferson

After another very bitter campaign, Thomas Jefferson defeated John Adams and his party swept the Federalists out of power. Jefferson served two terms as president 1801-1809. He was a wealthy Virginia planter and brought his strong antifederalist views to the office. He believed in a limited central government with most power being vested in the states.

Jefferson was determined to roll back all of Adams’ programs and initiatives. He reduced taxes, government spending, the national debt, and repealed the Alien and Sedition Act. He established the US Military Academy at West Point and sent the small US Navy to confront the Barbary Pirates in the Mediterranean Sea. The important 12th Amendment to the Constitution and the act to prohibit importation of slaves were passed. The Embargo Act of 1807 caused a US depression but did nothing to curtail the European powers. This embargo was repealed the next year.

Jefferson is best known for acquisition of the Louisiana Territory, which essentially doubled the land area of the United States. He also dispatched the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore and map this vast region and to push all the way to the Pacific Ocean. The Louisiana purchase was negotiated by Secretary of State James Madison and Ambassador to France Robert Livingston for fifteen million dollars.

Unfortunately, Jefferson spent a lot of time during his second term trying to get his former vice president, Aaron Burr, arrested and convicted for murder. His personal involvement in this matter was unconstitutional since he was interfering with the justice system and was demanding conviction without a fair trial. Burr had killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel and was tried three times and acquitted three times, but that did not satisfy Jefferson. He was not a good person to have as an enemy.

Jefferson tried to maintain American neutrality during the European wars but relations with Britain became even more strained as time passed. The Royal Navy was increasing their interference with American trade with France.

Portrait of James Madison-The Second Revolution-The War of 1812 — Portrait of James Madison

The next President, James Madison, served from 1809-1817 and was the hand-picked Jefferson candidate. As Secretary of State, he had protested to both Britain and France about their seizure of American ships, but both had ignored the protest. John Randolph stated the protest had the effect of “a shilling pamphlet hurled against eight hundred ships of war.”

When Madison took office, neither he nor Congress could settle on a foreign policy, and their indecision made matters worse. The British increased ship seizures and impressment of American sailors and increased their support of Indian attacks against Americans on the frontier. Finally, Madison issued a war proclamation against Britain on 18 June 1812.

America was not prepared for war. Congress had not properly organized nor funded a national army. Some states would not support “Mr. Madison’s War” and would not allow their militias to serve. America did have a small, but experienced Navy that had been organized for the Quasi-War with France. Both the British and Americans used Indian allies to augment their numbers.

Despite all the handicaps, Americans attempted to fight off the superior British, but were usually defeated. The war drug on and Madison was reelected despite some of his own party supporting his opponent. Madison was criticized and blamed for the lack of trade with Europe and New England threatened to secede from the Union.

Artist Depiction of White House Burning-The Second Revolution-The War of 1812 — Artist Depiction of White House Burning

The low point came in August 1814 when the British invaded Washington and burned the President’s House, the Capitol, the Library of Congress, and other buildings. The Madison’s had to flee from the city but returned very soon and began to rebuild. Burning the capitol served to galvanize American resolve and the military responded by being more aggressive against the British.

Artist Depiction of Battle of New Orleans-The Second Revolution-The War of 1812 — Artist Depiction of Battle of New Orleans

Both Britain and the US became weary of battle and its costs and agreed to meet in Ghent, United Netherlands (now Belgium) to negotiate an end to the war. The Treaty of Ghent was signed in December 1814 in Europe. Before word could reach America, General Andrew Jackson’s pick-up army dealt the British a humiliating defeat at the Battle of New Orleans on 8 January 1815. Jackson’s victory prevented a British plot to permanently lay claim to New Orleans and possibly to the entire Louisiana Territory.

While far from perfect, the Treaty of Ghent firmly established the United States as a sovereign nation and guaranteed American borders. British troops finally left the American frontier and retreated into Canada or back to Britain. British interference with trade and impressment of sailors ended. International trade flourished. Except for a few minor incidents, Britain and the US have enjoyed close relations for more than two centuries.

The few but key American naval victories and even fewer ground military victories climaxed by the Battle of New Orleans convinced Americans that the war was gloriously successful, and there was a surge of nationalism. The New England Federalists who had threatened secession were so repudiated that Federalism disappeared as a national political party.

Artist Depiction USS Constitution (Old Ironsides) Under Full Sail -The Second Revolution-The War of 1812 — Artist Depiction USS Constitution (Old Ironsides) Under Full Sail

After the War of 1812, a small American standing army was organized and trained. The war also resulted in expanded American sea power and American ships of war guarded the coast and the Great Lakes. US Navy men-of-war proudly sailed the seas displaying the stars and stripes and receiving salutes in ports throughout the world.

Once blamed for the errors in the war, Madison was eventually hailed for its triumphs. He oversaw the beginning of the rebuilding of Washington, DC and his wife Dolly reestablished social life in the city. At the end of his administration, the Madison’s retired to their mansion in Orange County, Virginia, and the James Monroe administration took over the reins of government

The War of 1812 was a watershed moment for the United States. Residents of the country became proud Americans who felt they could accomplish anything, and they moved into the frontier pushing west in droves. Louisiana territory was there for those who had the nerve to venture into that vast but dangerous area. Americans were on the march as one people for the first time, and nothing stopped them until they settled the wilderness all the way to the Pacific Ocean. That spirit still inspires Americans to follow their dreams.

February 1, 2022February 1, 2022

Doomed Spy-Nathan Hale

Most Americans know about the death of Nathan Hale who reportedly said before the British hanged him for espionage, “I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country.” Hale is one of the best-known figures of the Revolution, but we know little about him, his mission, his capture, or his last words. We know he was a 21-year-old officer in the Continental Army at the time General George Washington needed information on British plans for the invasion of Manhattan. Hale volunteered to spy on the British but was soon captured and hanged. His reported last words have inspired Americans ever since.

Nathan Hale was born on 6 June 1755 in Coventry, Connecticut. He was the second son of Deacon Richard Hale and Elizabeth Stone Hale. The Hales were a prominent and devout Puritan family. They instilled in their children the importance of hard work, religious virtue, and education.

Fourteen-year-old Nathan and his older brother, Enoch entered Yale College in 1769. Nathan excelled in literature and debate and graduated with honors at the age of 18. After graduation he became a schoolteacher in East Haddan and later in New London, Connecticut.

When the Revolutionary War began in 1775, Nathan Hale joined a Connecticut militia unit, and was elected lieutenant five months later. His unit participated in the siege of Boston Massachusetts. Some accounts say Hale saw battle there, but others say he remained behind because of teaching contractual obligations.

On 4 July 1775, Hale received a letter from his Yale classmate and friend, Benjamin Tallmadge who had been in Boston during the siege. He wrote, “Was I in your condition, I think the more extensive service would be my choice. Our Holy Religion, the honor of our God, a glorious country, & a happy constitution is what we have to defend.” Several days later, Hale was commissioned first lieutenant in the 7th Connecticut Regiment which was commanded by Colonel Charles Webb.

Hale was also in Knowlton’s Rangers, the first organized American intelligence service organization, which was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Knowlton. Nathan Hale was commissioned captain in the Continental Army in January 1776.

Portrait of General William Howe-Doomed Spy Natham Hale — Portrait of General William Howe

Following the loss of Boston in the spring of 1776, General Washington moved his army to the New York City area, which he correctly believed would be the next British target. British General William Howe recognized the strategic value of New York City and its deep-water port. In August, he began his campaign to take New York City by occupying Staten Island. From there he soundly defeated the Continental Army in the Battle of Long Island pushing Washington into Manhattan.

Washington needed to learn where Howe intended to launch an amphibious attack on Manhattan so he could deploy against it. He needed a spy behind enemy lines and called for volunteers. Captain Nathan Hale volunteered on 8 September 1776. He was the only volunteer.

Spying was not considered to be an honorable job for a “gentleman,” but Hale volunteered anyway, out of a sense of duty. He was aware of the danger because spies were summarily and quickly executed by both sides. ILR

Let’s pause here and take stock of Nathan Hale. He was obviously patriotic and well intentioned, but he was a 21-year-old man with virtually no military nor espionage training or experience. He was volunteering for a mission that he was totally unprepared for. He had no training or experience in spy “tradecraft.” He did not even know the most basic steps to avoid detection. Successful amateur spies are very rare. Most meet the same fate as Hale did.

Depiction of British Army Entering New York City-Doomed Spy Nathan Hale — Depiction of British Army Entering New York City

Hale planned to pose as a Dutch schoolteacher looking for work; however, he used his real name and reportedly carried his Yale diploma bearing his real name. He was ferried from Norwalk, Connecticut across Long Island Sound to Huntington, New York on British-controlled Long Island on 12 September. However, the military situation changed quickly. Howe invaded Manhattan and forced Washington to withdraw from New York City. The British entered the city on 16 September. Hale also entered the city to spy on the British.

On 21 September, the Great New York City Fire of 1776 burned 10-25 percent of the city. The British believed Patriots had started the fire and detained 200 of them. This incident caused the British forces to be on high alert for further Patriot “sabotage.”

Nathan Hale was reportedly captured on 21 September, but who captured him and how he was captured is not known for sure. One version has him being captured while trying to cross Long Island Sound into American-held territory. Another version is that his cousin Samuel Hale who was a Loyalist, recognized him in a tavern and betrayed him.

Portrait of Robert Rogers-Doomed Spy Nathan Hale — Portrait of Robert Rogers

The most accepted account was written by Consider Tiffany, a Connecticut shopkeeper and Loyalist. His family donated his papers to the Library of Congress in 2000. According to Tiffany, Major Robert Rogers of the Queen’s Rangers saw Hale in a New York City tavern and recognized him having crossed paths with him in late 1775. Rogers was a hero of the French and Indian War but was a disreputable character with a long criminal history and no loyalties. Before being commissioned in the British Army he had unsuccessfully sought a commission from General Washington.

The story goes that Rogers engaged Hale in conversation and eventually claimed to be a Patriot and a spy. Hale believed he had found a friend and told Rogers everything. Rogers then invited Hale to dine with him at his quarters the next day, and Hale accepted. Four other “Patriots” were at the dinner and a company of British soldiers surrounded the house and arrested Hale.

Hale was taken to the headquarters of General Howe who personally questioned him. Maps and drawings of fortifications were found on Hale which implicated him as a spy and Rogers provided additional information. At this point Hale gave his name, rank, and his mission. Execution orders were quickly issued.

Hale was apparently calm while awaiting execution as evidenced by the diary of British officer Frederick MacKensie: “He behaved with great composure and resolution, saying he thought it the duty of every good Officer, to obey any orders given him by his Commander-in-Chief; and desired the Spectators to be at all times prepared to meet death in whatever shape it might appear.”

Depiction of Hanging of Nathan Hale-Doomed Spy Nathan Hale — Depiction of Hanging of Nathan Hale

Nathan Hale was marched along Post Road to the Park of Artillery, which was next to The Dove Tavern (Present day 66th Street and Third Avenue), in the morning of 22 September 1776 and hanged. In those days, hangings were performed with the victim on a wagon or cart that was pulled out from under him. Death was by strangulation and death came slowly. By all accounts Hale met his fate with composure and resolve. As the noose was placed around his neck, he made a “sensible and spirited speech” in defense of his actions and sense of duty.

Hale’s body was left hanging for several days and was later buried in an unmarked grave. His grave has never been found.

No official records were kept of Hale’s final words so debate about the accuracy of the sources has continued through the years. The quote I used is the best-known and most used. It originated with British Captain John Montresor who was at the hanging. The next day he spoke with American Captain William Hull under a flag of truce. Hull recorded in his memoirs the following words of Montresor:

“On the morning of his execution,” continued the officer, “my station was near the fatal spot, and I requested the Provost Marshall (William Cunningham) to permit the prisoner to sit in my marquee, while he was making the necessary preparations. Captain Hale entered: he was calm, and bore himself with gentle dignity, in the consciousness of rectitude and high intentions. He asked for writing materials, which I furnished him: he wrote two letters, one to his mother and one to a brother officer. He was shortly after summoned to the gallows. But a few persons were around him, yet his characteristic dying words were remembered. He said, ‘I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country.”

Many historians have questioned the reliability of Hull’s memoirs since Hull was not present at the hanging. Many of them believe Hale spoke some variation of the best-known quote. Joseph Addison’s play “Cato” was quite popular at the time and contained the following:

How beautiful is death, when earn’d by virtue! Who would not be that youth? What pity is it that we can die but once to serve our country.

Obviously, the debate over Hale’s last words has continued. Nathan’s brother Enoch wrote in his diary after he had questioned witnesses that Nathan had given only his name and rank. The 13 February 1777 issue of the Essex Massachusetts Journal stated Hale’s last words in part: “that if he (Hale) had ten thousand lives, he would lay them all down, if called to it, in defense of his injured, bleeding country.” The Massachusetts Independent Chronicle and Universal Advertiser published this version on 17 May 1781: “I am so satisfied with the cause in which I have engaged, that my only regret is, that I have not more lives than one to offer in its service.”

All agree that Hale’s final speech was more than one sentence long, and in that speech, he stated that he regretted having only one life to give for his country. That is what is important, and the Hull version has rung “true” for over 200 years and has inspired generations of Americans. I can remember how deeply impressed I was when I first heard those words, and I am even more impressed now.

Nathan Hale was a true Patriot that was voluntarily put into a situation that he was not prepared for. His fate was sealed the day he crossed Long Island Sound into enemy territory. He made many mistakes and trusted too many people which resulted in his death. He was young, inexperienced, and naïve. His strong sense of duty and honor did not prepare him for the murky and treacherous world of espionage.

There are no known portraits of Nathan Hale. He was described by fellow soldier Lieutenant Elisha Bostwick who wrote that Hale had very fair skin, blue eyes, flaxen blond hair, darker eyebrows, was taller than the average male of the time, and had a sharp or piercing voice. He also described him as highly intelligent, athletic, and religious.

Early Americans needed heroes and Nathan Hale became one of the first. He is still an American hero that we remember and honor for his bravery and conduct when he knew he was to die. We especially remember his words when the noose was around his neck moments before the hangman carried out the sentence of death.

There are many statues of Hale. The one erected at City Hall Park, New York in1893 by Frederick William MacMonnies established the modern idealized square-jawed image. Statues of Hale are mostly found in New York and Connecticut, including at Yale College, the Hale birthplace, and the Connecticut State House. A statue of Hale also stands in the lobby of the CIA Headquarters in Langley, Virginia.

Nathan Hale Monument Coventry Connecticut-Doomed Spy Nathan Hale — Nathan Hale Monument Coventry Connecticut

In 1846 a large stone monument was erected in honor of Nathan Hale in Coventry, Connecticut. It was one of the first war memorials to be built in the United States. This monument is in the Nathan Hale Cemetery in the South Coventry Historic District.

January 15, 2022January 15, 2022

Sex in Early America-The Reynolds Affair

Alexander Hamilton had the dubious honor of having the first sexual affair of a married American politician to become public. He had an affair with a young married woman, Maria Reynolds, whose husband blackmailed him. Hamilton publicly admitted to the affair after his political enemies accused him of financial corruption during his tenure as Secretary of the Treasury. The scandal lead to quarrels and near duels involving two of the country’s leading statesmen and was a principal factor in the struggle between the Federalists and Antifederalists.

According to Hamilton, in the summer of 1791, he was with his family in Philadelphia when a young woman called at the door and wished to speak to him in private. Hamilton agreed, and when in private, the woman identified herself as Maria Lewis Reynolds of New York. She claimed that her husband, James, had for a long time treated her cruelly and now had left her and their young daughter for another woman. She claimed she had no means to return to New York and appealed to “Colonel Hamilton to assist a woman in despair.”

Hamilton told Maria that he was “disposed” to help her but that the time was “inconvenient.” He then asked if he could send money to her place of residence or personally deliver it. Maria must have said that was acceptable. She probably encouraged a personal delivery because that evening Hamilton traveled to her rooming house with a thirty-dollar bank note in his pocket.

Portrait Believed to be Maria Reynolds-Sex in Early America-The Reynolds Affair — Portrait Believed to be Maria Reynolds

There are few physical descriptions of Maria Reynolds. An acquaintance of Hamilton’s said, “her innocent Countenance appeared to show an innocent Heart.” Hamilton called her “Beauty in distress” and “a pretty woman.” Some alleged she was very emotional and given to weeping. She must have been pretty enough for Hamilton to willingly walk into an obvious trap of seduction.

When Hamilton arrived at the rooming house Maria escorted him to her bedroom where Hamilton gave her the money. He said, “Some conversation ensued from which it was quickly apparent that other than pecuniary consolation would be acceptable.” Hamilton was being seduced and was very willing because the two quickly ended up in bed beginning a year-long affair that caused a political scandal of stunning proportions.

Politically Hamilton was a Federalist, and he was quite busy during the summer and fall of 1791, the early months of George Washington’s first term. He was Secretary of the Treasury and Customs and was also trying to drive the Antifederalist Thomas Jefferson out of the Cabinet. He was writing scathing articles under aliases about Jefferson’s followers.

On the business side, Hamilton was preparing his fourth of five Treasury Reports on Manufactures, which when all were enacted replaced near worthless currency, funded a debt of about 75 million dollars, restored credit at home and abroad, created a national banking system, and laid the groundwork for an industrial economy with a powerful central government. All of this was bitterly opposed by Jefferson’s Antifederalist party.

The demands of his office were arduous and must have taken a great deal of time, but Hamilton always found time for Maria. He often met her at his home since his wife, Elizabeth had taken the children to visit her father in Albany, New York. Using his home for their trysts probably meant the secret was no longer secret.

Hamilton met Maria’s husband, James Reynolds because Reynolds claimed he had information on misconduct in the Treasury. Hamilton found the information to be of minor importance. Later Reynolds applied for a job in the Treasury Department, but he was turned down. Reynolds knew about his wife’s relationship with Hamilton and encouraged it because he planned to blackmail Hamilton.

Hamilton continued the affair despite writing that he wanted to end it. He wrote “…. her conduct made it extremely difficult to disentangle myself.” He continued: “My sensibility, perhaps my vanity admitted the possibility of real fondness….” Obviously, Hamilton was conflicted but kept the affair active. Thirty-four-year-old Alexander Hamilton’s hormones were raging like a teenager.

The plot thickened on 15 December 1791 when Hamilton received two letters—one from Maria and one from her husband. Maria was telling him that her husband had discovered her infidelity, and that he was threatening to inform Mrs. Hamilton if his letter was not answered. She insisted that Hamilton not respond to her husband. However, she begged Hamilton to visit her right away because she was alone, and she felt more for him than herself.

James Reynolds wrote an “injured husband” letter saying Hamilton was not a friend and had taken advantage of his wife. After the litany of wounded honor, he pointed out that Mrs. Hamilton did not know of the affair. He then insisted on meeting with Hamilton.

After several meetings and an exchange of letters James Reynolds decided that money would satisfy his wounded honor. Most men found satisfaction on the dueling field. He demanded one thousand dollars with the promise to leave town with his daughter leaving Maria to Hamilton. The money was paid in two installments on 22 December and on 3 January 1792, but Hamilton did not immediately resume his visits to Maria.

Of course, James Reynolds did not leave town because he planned to continue extorting money. To convince Hamilton to keep visiting Maria, he wrote Hamilton to say he would have no objections to him visiting Maria as a friend to “both of them.” Hamilton did not resume his visits until Maria begged him to visit at least one more time.

Hamilton visited “once” and then was hooked again and resumed regular visits. This was what James Reynolds wanted and he began demands for what he called “loans,” which Hamilton paid. In March James again encouraged Hamilton’s visits, but in May 1792 he forbade Hamilton to see his wife again.

Hamilton had finally realized that both Reynold’s were involved in extorting money from him. However, he continued visiting Maria through mid-August when he finally complied with James Reynolds’ request and cut off all contact with both of them. Hamilton had paid Reynolds a total of about $1,300 dollars (about $25,000 today), which was about a third of his annual income. Hamilton mistakenly believed that he had heard the last of this affair.

In November 1792, James Reynolds and Jacob Clingman were jailed for participating in a swindle involving back pay for Revolutionary War veterans using records obtained by a coconspirator in the Treasury Department. In an effort to avoid punishment, Clingman revealed he had knowledge of impropriety and corruption by Alexander Hamilton and insinuated that Hamilton was involved in their swindle. He brought his accusations to the attention of Federalist Frederick A. Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania. Although he considered Reynolds to be a “rascal” he passed the information to Senator James Monroe and Congressman Abraham Venable, both Virginians and both Antifederalists.

Abraham Venable-Sex in Early America-The Reynolds Affair — 987266

James Monroe-Sex in Early America-The Reynolds Affair — James Monroe

Frederick A. Muhlenberg-Sex in Early America-The Reynolds Affair — Frederick A. Muhlenberg

The three men interviewed James Reynolds and Maria Reynolds. James provided information on the affair knowing that Hamilton would have to admit to the affair or falsely admit to complicity in the swindle. Maria presented herself as a “victim” of the powerful Hamilton and provided letters that seemed to prove that he had used public funds for private gain. She impugned Hamilton’s character and reputation during the interview.

After the interviews, they confronted Hamilton. They said they had uncovered “a very improper connection” between him and James Reynolds. With his friend Oliver Wolcott by his side, Hamilton confessed to adultery, infidelity, and submission to blackmail, but denied any dishonesty as a public official. He held nothing back and gave a full and detailed account of his relationship with James and Maria Reynolds.

Hamilton was candid, and although they were shocked by his indiscretion, the three congressmen were convinced he was innocent of the accusations. They wrote and signed a report to themselves, sealed the documents and agreed to keep it all secret. Hamilton made his own record of the meeting and asked for copies of all the documents from the congressmen. They complied and the copies were made by Antifederalist John Beckley, Clerk of the House of Representatives. Unfortunately for Hamilton, Beckley also made copies for his files.

In 1793 Hamilton retired to private law practice in New York to spend more time with his wife and five children. He also served as an unofficial adviser to his former boss, President Washington. His life was happy and relaxed. However, in 1797 the Federalists removed John Beckley from his post in the House. Beckley was not pleased and turned over the Hamilton papers to James T. Callender an especially unscrupulous journalist.

James C. Collender-Sex in Early America-The Reynolds Affair — James C. Collender

Callender was a Scotsman driven from England for literary excesses. He migrated to America and became a political pamphleteer under the aegis of Thomas Jefferson. He ran the Hamilton story in two pamphlets, the first published in June 1797. He included all the documents the Congressmen had prepared, and he opined that Hamilton had used Reynolds and others in his speculation of government securities. He also declared Hamilton had forced James Reynolds to flee the area.

Hamilton quickly published a denial in a Federalist newspaper and declared that the three Congressmen with Wolcott as a witness decided the charges were false. He also requested that the three quickly provide a declaration confirming their findings. He suspected that Monroe was responsible for the leak partly because Callender lavished praise on Monroe.

Muhlenberg and Venable were preparing the requested declarations, but Monroe had just returned from France and had not yet followed suit. Hamilton did not trust Monroe and demanded a personal meeting with him.

The meeting was attended by Hamilton accompanied by John B. Church and Monroe with Congressman David Gelston who recorded the meeting. Hamilton was agitated and would not accept Monroe’s ignorance of the Callender pamphlet. Monroe resented being called a liar and the confrontation escalated to them racing to a duel. A duel was avoided by the intercession of Church and Gelston.

Portrait of Aaron Burr-Sex in Early America-The Reynolds Affair — Portrait of Aaron Burr

Shortly after the Monroe meeting, Hamilton read Callender’s second installment and found in it shocking documents he had not seen. One was Monroe’s interview with Clingman who charged that Hamilton had concocted the story and forged the letters to cover his own wrongdoing. Hamilton confronted Monroe by letter and again the situation escalated to them heading for a duel. This duel was averted by the efforts of Aaron Burr. Hamilton held a grudge against Monroe for the rest of his life.

Hamilton announced he would defend his honor by explaining all in a pamphlet. His friends pleaded with him, believing it could only harm his party, his family and himself. His friends suggested silence believing the matter would eventually blow over.

Hamilton ignored all the advice because he felt his honor and reputation as an incorruptible public servant was at stake. Most believed in his innocence, but that was not enough for him. He needed to remain silent, but he felt that he had to speak out to convince everybody of his innocence.

The Hamilton 95-page pamphlet called “Observations on Certain Documents” was published on 25 August 1797 and was later known as the “Reynolds Pamphlet.” He denied all charges of corruption and tried to prove it through a detailed account of his trysts with Maria Reynolds and the blackmail by her husband. The account of the sexual affair was exceptionally explicit for the time. Most of his friends believed he had degraded himself and scandalized his family in his effort to clear his name.

The publication made Hamilton appear immoral and weak-a man who would risk all for the affections of another woman and who would pay blackmail to hide it. Many saw Maria as an innocent that was taken advantage of by a powerful man. However, James Reynolds’ blackmail letters dispelled any suggestion of Hamilton’s involvement in the Reynolds-Clingman swindle.

Portrait of Elizabeth Hamilton-Sex in Early America-The Reynolds Affair — Portrait of Elizabeth Hamilton

Publication of the details of Hamilton’s sexual relationship with Maria was humiliating for his wife, Elizabeth. With no consideration for her feelings and reputation, one newspaper wrote that she must have been just as “wicked” to have such a husband. By all accounts Elizabeth forgave her husband and after his death spent the rest of her life trying to undo the damage to his reputation. She also shared his animosity towards Monroe and rejected Monroe’s effort at reconciliation shortly before his death on 4 July 1831.

Jefferson and other Antifederalists were delighted with the revelations and declared the document was further proof of Hamilton’s guilt and unworthiness for public office. As an ultimate insult, and to turn the screws tighter, the Jeffersonian Antifederalists republished the entire pamphlet at their own expense.

Callender attacked Hamilton’s story as soon as it was published, but Hamilton ignored him and so did everyone else. Callender was an obnoxious and personally unclean person who had a history of making wild partisan charges against many officials. His first expose of Hamilton was the high point of his career. He also turned on and attacked his mentor, Thomas Jefferson, but was unable to destroy him. He died soon afterward by drowning while in a drunken stupor.

The Reynolds affair not only ruined Hamilton’s social standing, it destroyed his political future. He had been a serious contender for more important offices including being Washington’s successor, but that future was gone. However, George Washington’s opinion of Hamilton never wavered. He still held him in “very high esteem” and still viewed him as the dominant force in establishing federal law and government.

Hamilton was killed in a duel with Aaron Burr on 11 July 1804. Ironically, Burr had intervened to avert a duel between Hamilton and Monroe. Burr also represented Maria Reynolds when she divorced her husband and married Clingman.

Alexander Hamilton was a Founding Father of the United States. He served in the Revolutionary War, and at 20 years old, became an aide-de-camp to General George Washington and was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel. He also lead a critical attack against the British at Yorktown.

Hamilton became a leading and powerful American statesman and was an influential interpreter of the Constitution. He was the first Secretary of the Treasury. He established the Bank of North America, the first Bank of the United States, a system of tariffs, and friendly trade with Britain. He was founder of the nation’s financial system, the Federalist Party, the Coast Guard, and the New York Post newspaper.

Honor and reputation were especially important to Hamilton because of his illegitimate birth. He chose to make a complete confession about a moral issue to prove his innocence of the greater sin of corruption and official dishonesty. He was a successful married man who risked everything for clandestine pleasure and was blackmailed. He was the first high-level American government official to have an illicit affair publicly exposed. Many others have suffered the same self-inflicted wound and each one has reacted differently. Hamilton had the dubious honor of being first.

EPILOGUE:

To be complete about this historical incident, I must point out that the story has been told many times. Each author added his own slant and tried to add new facts and fresh analysis, but the basic story has remained intact.

When the affair became publicly known in 1797 there were some who believed it was a cover-up for corruption by Hamilton and his political partners. The Jeffersonian Antifederalists made the absurd charge that Hamilton, John Adams and other Federalists were engaged in a plot to subvert the Republic by reestablishing a king. They lost considerable credibility for making those wild charges. Adams revered the Republic and Hamilton had been investigated by bipartisan congressional committees for fiscal misconduct twice and cleared twice.

J. P. Floyd-Sex in Early America-The Reynolds Affair — J. P. Floyd

The most extensive and credible attack on the credibility of the Reynolds Affair was made by history professor Dr J.P. Boyd. He became suspicious in 1928 because of something he found in the Tench Coke papers (now closed to researchers) and in 1962 he expressed the opinion that the affair should be reexamined because of fresh evidence. Later, Dr Boyd authored a sixty-two-page reexamination.

Boyd believes the affair never happened and was a fiction by Hamilton to cover his corruption in the Treasury Department. Boyd claims Hamilton created the whole story and forged all the papers and letters in the few days before the Muhlenberg, Monroe, and Venable meeting. He also believes that the Reynolds were innocent victims. However, both Reynolds admitted their relationship with Hamilton and Maria provided Hamilton letters to the three congressmen.

Although Dr. Boyd presents a compelling case, I don’t agree with him. I don’t believe anybody could have concocted the story, forged all the letters, provided letters to Maria, and convinced her to turn them over to the congressmen. Too many people were involved, and they all had to tell the right story at the right time. Somebody would have slipped up or have eventually blown the whistle. People have trouble keeping secrets about other people, especially powerful people. In addition, no evidence of corruption by Hamilton has ever surfaced.

If Hamilton was corrupt, he would have had time to plan a way to cover it up without presenting himself as an immoral rake. Boyd also proposed indirectly that Hamilton’s wife was part of the deception, which I believe is doubtful because of the humiliation she had to endure.

Nina Mason-Sex in Early America-The Reynolds Affair — Nina Mason

There is at least one scholar, Nina Mason, that believes the Reynolds Affair and duel with Aaron Burr were part of a larger conspiracy against Hamilton that was directed by Thomas Jefferson. If true, this would mean that one of our most revered and respected founders organized a plot to lure Hamilton into an illicit affair that involved blackmail, leak the information to expose him, make it appear to others that Hamilton was corrupt forcing him to publicly defend himself, and to cause Burr to antagonize Hamilton into a duel and kill him.

This requires the reader to believe that Thomas Jefferson resorted to trapping his major rival in a web of subterfuge and lies to destroy him and then arrange for his “murder.” Personally, I am not prepared to believe this theory. Jefferson was often outspoken and spiteful and truly believed that Federalism would destroy the very foundation of the Republic. He was not a good man to have as an enemy, but I don’t believe this great man would resort to such excesses to destroy a political foe. I think Jefferson was egoist enough to believe he could destroy any political foe with superior ideas and rhetoric. ilr

January 1, 2022January 1, 2022

Slave Billy Lee-Hero in the Shadows

Billy Lee (AKA Will, William) is a very interesting early American whose contributions to our country were due to his unique relationship to George Washington. Meaningful discussion about Billy is often impossible due to so many extreme positive and negative opinions because Billy was a slave. For this reason, he has been largely ignored by both white and black historians who tend to dismiss him as nothing more than an enslaved servant. This opinion shames them all.

G. Washington and Billy Lee - Billy Lee- Hero in the Shadows — G. Washington and Billy Lee

Some portraits of Washington and his family include the image of an African man in the background, often wearing a turban. This image is believed to be Billy Lee. I hope to bring Billy out of the shadows to recognize his unique, although mostly indirect, contributions to the founding of our nation.

We know little about Billy Lee’s early years, but we do know that Washington purchased teenager Billy, and his younger brother, Frank, in 1768 from the estate of deceased Colonel John Lee, a fellow Virginian. Both were to be “house servants” rather than field workers. A premium price was usually paid for house servants because most had received some education, were normally literate, and had some essential talent. For these reasons, they were usually given responsibilities and privileges that most slaves could only dream about.

Frank Lee became a butler in the Mount Vernon household, but Billy apparently impressed Washington and became his manservant/valet/companion. He was also made the Huntsman of Washington’s fox hunts—one of Washington’s favorite activities. As Huntsman, he was responsible for handling the hounds, and keeping the hunt organized. Washington was known to be very demanding of all those involved in his hunts.

Billy was particularly well-known for his remarkable and fearless horsemanship, which was best described by George Washington Parke Custis (Washington’s step-grandson): “Will, the huntsman, better known in Revolutionary lore as Billy, rode a horse called Chinkling, a surprising leaper, and made very much like its rider, low, but sturdy, and of great bone and muscle. Will had but one order, which was to keep with the hounds; and, mounted on Chinkling…this fearless horseman would rush, at full speed, through brake or tangled wood, in a style at which modern huntsman would stand aghast.”

As Washington’s manservant/valet/companion, Billy undoubtedly spent more time with Washington than any other person. He accompanied Washington nearly everywhere, including to the Virginia House of Burgesses, on his surveying excursions into the western wilderness of the Ohio Valley, and to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1774.

Billy Lee Saddling Horse - Billy Lee - Hero in the Shadows — Billy Lee Saddling Horse

As Washington became active in the early moves towards independence, Billy accompanied him in his travels to Philadelphia and New York. Washington was appointed Commander of Colonial Forces In 1775, and for the entire eight years of the Revolutionary War, Billy was by his side, even in the thick of battle, and was known to place himself between Washington and danger.

Billy also organized Washington’s personal affairs, including his voluminous papers. Billy was well known in the army since he was more like a military aide than a servant. (blr)

Although Virginia law did not recognize slave marriages, Billy was apparently married prior to the war. Washington’s cousin, Lund Washington, who was managing Mount Vernon during the war, wrote the general on 30 December 1775: “if it will give Will any pleasure he may be told that his wife and child are both very well.” This was the first and last known mention of his family and it is believed that his wife either died shortly after Lund’s letter or escaped to a Free State. There are no records of his child.

We know Billy married Margaret Thomas, a free African from Philadelphia during the war. Margaret had been a servant in Washington’s headquarters. It is not known if she had been a slave and escaped or whether she was free-born.

After the war, Billy asked Washington to bring Margaret to Mount Vernon. Apparently she was not liked by Washington who reportedly grumbled that he “never wished to see her more,” but went on to say that he could not refuse Billy “(if it can be complied with on reasonable terms) as he has lived with me so long and followed my fortunes with fidelity.” There is no record of Margaret being at Mount Vernon. She was reported to be in poor health and in fact may have died before she could move. Or she just did not want to live in a slave state.

It is appropriate to note that Billy and Washington spent much of their time before and during the war in “Free States” where Billy was legally a free man. He could have just abandoned Washington and stayed in “free” territory. There is, however, no record that he ever tried to take advantage of this situation. Washington was a great records keeper so I believe he would have written a lot about such an incident if it had ever occurred.

After the War for Independence, Washington resigned his commission in 1783. After his resignation Billy accompanied him back to Mount Vernon where they resumed their normal lives. During a 1785 surveying expedition, Billy severely injured a knee, and three years later in Alexandria, Virginia he fell and injured the other knee, which rendered him seriously disabled.

When Washington was elected President in 1789, Billy was determined to accompany him to New York for the inauguration, and to be part of the presidential household. Unfortunately, his condition worsened, and he could only make it to Philadelphia where he had to be left for medical care. Washington’s agent in Philadelphia, Clement Biddle, was to monitor Billy’s progress. He often corresponded about Billy’s condition since Washington was genuinely concerned about his old companion.

Billy was treated by several physicians who eventually outfitted him with a steel brace, which allowed him to travel. Washington’s secretary, Tobias Lear, wrote the following to Biddle: “if he is still anxious to come on here the President would gratify him altho’ he will be troublesome. He has been an old & faithful Servt. This is enough for the Presidt to gratify him in every reasonable wish.” Billy eventually joined the presidential household in New York, but his disabilities made it impossible for him to perform his duties.

Billy’s brother Frank’s nephew had to assist Billy in New York, and shortly had to take over all his duties. Billy did not improve and returned to Mount Vernon in 1790. When Washington retired to Mount Vernon in 1797, Billy was still unable to perform any of his former duties and spent the remainder of his life as a shoemaker at Mount Vernon—a job he could physically perform. Because of his close association with Washington during the Revolutionary War, Billy was a minor celebrity, and visitors to Mount Vernon, especially Revolutionary War veterans, often stopped to reminisce about the war with him.

Billy Lee in Later Life-Portrait by Peale - Billy Lee - Hero in the Shadows — Billy Lee in Later Life-Portrait by Peale

When George Washington died in 1799, he freed Billy in his will citing “this I give him as a testimony of my sense of his attachment to me, and for his faithful services during the Revolutionary War.” The will provided a pension for Billy and stipulated that he had the option of remaining at Mount Vernon. He did choose to live at Mount Vernon until his death in 1810. He is believed to be buried in the plantation’s slave cemetery.

Billy was the only slave freed in Washington’s will. Another 123 were to be freed when Martha Washington died. (There were another 153 slaves at Mount Vernon, but Washington could not free them since they were legally the property of Martha’s first husband’s estate.)

Obviously, if Billy had been white rather than an African slave, he would have been celebrated for his association with the “Father of our country” during those momentous times. Also, the question is often posed about Billy’s true motivation for his apparent devotion to Washington. Did it stem from genuine affection or a desire to maintain his position of privilege within the slave community? The opinions on that question cover the entire spectrum of possibilities.

My opinion is that the relationship was based on genuine affection. Billy did not have to place himself in danger to protect Washington, and he apparently never tried to escape when they were in free states. Many slaves did escape when such an opportunity presented itself. Also, based on Washington’s will and correspondence when Billy was receiving medical care in Philadelphia, Washington believed there was genuine affection and friendship between them.

Washington’s views on slavery changed significantly during the war as he saw free Africans from the northern states serving gallantly in his army. He made the commitment to neither buy nor sell slaves again, and to avoid separating slave families. I believe his long-term close relationship with Billy, who was brave and loyal, also contributed to this change in attitude.

There is much we will never know about Billy Lee but we know for sure that he was a patriot and contributed significantly to the founding of our country. He should be recognized and celebrated by all as a true Revolutionary Hero.

December 15, 2021December 15, 2021

Violation of New York City-The Great 1776 Fire

The Great Fire of 1776 destroyed between 10 and 25 percent of New York City. Catastrophic city fires were common when most buildings were constructed of wood with wood roofs. However, this fire began less than a week after the British occupied the city, and nobody knows who started the fire or whether it was accidental. The answer, of course, depends on who is presenting an opinion.

General Washington was ordered to not burn the city and denied that his troops started the fire. The British blamed Loyalists but some believed the British started the fire so they could blame the retreating Americans. Some believed looters started the fire. No matter how the fire started, it caused many to live in squalor for years because no recovery was attempted until the defeated British withdrew in 1783.

New York City 1776- Violation of New York City-The Great 1776 Fire — British Military Engineer Map New York City 1776

New York City in 1766 had a population of about 25,000 and occupied the southern tip of Manhattan. Most structures were constructed of wood and most roofs were wood shingles. There was a history of major fires in most cities, so the Provincial government of New York had attempted to address the use of building materials. They enacted the first New York City regulations in 1761.

The early regulations required that by 1 January 1766 new structures were to be constructed of stone or brick and roofs to be tile or slate. However, these regulations were strongly opposed by builders and building owners because of costs, the scarcity of the building materials, and the substantial number of new structures being built each year. A reliable source estimated that about 100 structures were being added every year. The opposition carried the day, and the regulations were postponed and eventually dropped completely.

When the Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, New York City was already an important hub of business and trade. However, New York Province was politically divided with a strong Loyalist government, but with many Patriot groups throughout the province. After the battles of Lexington and Concord, Patriots gained control of New York City and began arresting and expelling Loyalists.

Portrait British General William Howe-Violation of New York City-The Great 1776 Fire — Portrait British General William Howe

The Continental Army under the command of General George Washington occupied New York City in early 1776, but British General William Howe recognized the strategic value of the city and its deep-water harbor. In early summer 1776, Howe launched a campaign to take the city by occupying Staten Island. His force of 32,000 regulars,10 ships of the line, 20 frigates, and 170 transports defeated the Continental forces on Long Island by August. The British fleet was under the command of Admiral Lord Richard Howe, General William Howe’s brother.

General Washington realized his position was untenable and in May 1776 started to withdraw to Harlem Heights about 10 miles north. John Jay and General Nathanael Greene advocated burning New York to the ground to deny the British its benefits. Washington questioned Congress on their position on burning the city and they replied that “it should in no event be damaged.” Consequently, General Washington did not issue any order to burn the city.

During the American occupation, many Loyalists were expelled or willingly left New York City. Some Patriots also left realizing the city was a target because of its strategic value. Once the Continental Army began withdrawing from the city, a mass exodus of civilians began. New York City became nearly a “ghost town.” because about 80 percent of the citizens had evacuated before the British entered the city. Most of the city’s fire fighters were probably among the evacuees.

On the day after the British landed on Manhattan, Howe split his forces. One group moved to Harlem Heights where they skirmished with the Continentals. Howe’s other group marched into New York City on 16 September 1776 beginning a seven-year occupation. Being a good soldier, Howe immediately began the tasks of occupation such as establishing his defenses, establishing law and order, and quartering his army. He also appointed a Loyalist governing body to run day-to-day operations of the city.

At least 20,000 British troops, including 11,000 German mercenaries occupied the city. This massive enemy military presence significantly strained the city’s resources and required a lot of building space. The Americans had used vacant buildings for their use, but Howe confiscated Patriot’s property for use by his army.

Five days after their arrival the British were just beginning to get settled into the city of only about 5,000 residents. Security was still spotty. There were probably more Loyalists than Patriots in the city, and the Patriots were infuriated by the British occupation. With this as the background disaster struck the city just past midnight on 21 September 1778.

Drawing New York City Waterfront ca. 1776-Violation of New York City-The Great 1776 Fire — Drawing New York City Waterfront ca. 1776

The most reliable eyewitness account of the Great Fire start was by an American prisoner aboard the HMS Pearl anchored in the harbor. His name was John Joseph Henry and he stated that the fire began in the Fighting Cocks Tavern on Whitehall Street near Whitehall slip. The tavern was a waterfront wooden building described as “a low drinking place” and a “fun house.” Another source said the “fire started in the fireplace” and the “drunken revelers were unable to stop the blaze.”

The weather had been dry and there were high winds, so the blaze quickly spread north and west among tightly packed homes and businesses. Residents poured into the streets with what possessions they could carry desperately trying to stay ahead of the fire. Many found refuge on the grassy town commons (today City Hall Park).

All chances to contain the blaze disappeared quickly since very few of the colonial fire fighters were still in the city and even fewer were on duty. Since the attempts at firefighting were in disarray, British troops attempted to do the job. They were inexperienced and found that much of the equipment had been sabotaged so they were also ineffective.

Artist Depiction of 1776 New York Fire-Violation of New York City-The Great 1776 Fire — Artist Depiction of 1776 New York Fire (Note Soldiers Beating Civilians)

Looting was a big problem during the fire and the looters included British soldiers who were “supplementing” their salaries. Most of the looting occurred in areas of the city that were not affected by fire. The looting led to clashes between soldiers and civilians. Some soldiers were trying to stop the looting and others were looters. Some fleeing residents were bayonated by soldiers who mistook them for looters. These clashes resulted in an unknown number of injuries and death.

Meanwhile the fire raged on unabated. It crossed Broadway near Beaver Street and then burned most of the city between Broadway and the Hudson River. The fire continued into the daylight hours and was stopped later mainly by a change in wind direction. It may have also been stopped by the relatively undeveloped property of King’s College (Columbia University today) at the northern end of the fire damaged area.

Map Showing New York Burned Area 1776-Violation of New York City-The Great 1776 Fire — Map Showing New York Burned Area 1776

Estimates of buildings destroyed were between 400 and 1,000 (10 to 25 percent) of the estimated 4,000 buildings existing at the time. Among the buildings destroyed was the magnificent 1698 Trinity Church. St. Paul’s Chapel survived, and George Washington attended services there on 30 April 1789 when he was inaugurated the first President of the United States. He attended St. Paul’s for the two years the capital was in New York City.

The blame game began before the ashes cooled. Howe’s report to London said, “a most bad attempt was made by a number of wretches to burn the town.” The Royal Governor William Tryon suspected that Washington was responsible because “some of his army were found concealed in the city.” Many Americans also believed Continental forces torched the city. John Joseph Henry recorded that marines from the HMS Pearl that had fought the fire claimed men were “caught in the act of firing houses.”

Some Americans believed the British started the fire so the city could be looted. A Hessian major wrote that some who fought the blaze managed to “pay themselves well by plundering other houses near by that were not on fire.” Others believed the British torched the city so they could blame it on Washington.

George Washington wrote to John Hancock on 22 September denying any knowledge of the fire’s cause. In a letter to his cousin Lund, Washington wrote, “Providence–or some good honest fellow, has done more for us than we were disposed to do for ourselves.”

After studying the facts, historians have never been able to pinpoint how the fire started. My opinion is that the fire started exactly as described in the Fighting Cocks Tavern. Most city fires were accidental, and I believe the identity of an arsonist (or arsonists) would have eventually become known. People who commit such large offenses usually cannot resist telling somebody about it. People like to brag.

No matter how the fire really started, the British rounded up more than 200 “suspects.” One source said that some were beaten and killed but I found no other references to such actions. No official charges were filed against any of the suspects. Nathan Hale was captured and hanged for espionage during this time. There was no evidence connecting Hale to the fire. He was an American spy that unfortunately got caught.

The British chose to establish martial law rather than returning to civilian administration and chose not to clear or rebuild after the fire. Many of the residents lived in tents and shacks in the burned-out areas and lived in squalor. This squalor was made worse by a huge influx of Loyalists who were returning or were escaping from Patriot controlled areas. Crime and miserable sanitation were persistent problems under British rule.

Contemporary accounts noted that many British soldiers were unruly and generally uncontrolled. Their patronage of the red-light districts and taverns, and their drunken behavior led to continued looting and civil disorder. The British also had logistical problems supplying the occupying troops which was complicated by massive smuggling and black-market activity.

British Major General James Robertson confiscated the vacant homes of Patriots for officer’s quarters. All church structures, except those of the Church of England, were converted to prisons, infirmaries, or barracks. Some common (enlisted) soldiers were billeted with civilian families. The British army did establish a firefighting capability, but it was generally incompetent and was formed to protect their facilities only.

Artist Depiction of Interior of British Prison Ship-Violation of New York City-The Great1776 Fire — Artist Depiction of Interior of British Prison Ship

During the seven years of occupation, thousands of American prisoners of war were confined in makeshift and disease infested prisons in the burned-out city. Even more prisoners were held in prison ships moored in the East River. These crowded ships were hellholes of disease and death.

The presence of thousands of prisoners made the supply problems worse, which meant the prisoners did not get much food and virtually no medical care. Volunteer Loyalist ladies provided as much care as they could and saved many lives, but their efforts were inadequate compared to the enormity of the situation.

Despite all the problems, New York City remained the seat of British administration of the colonies for the next seven years. A succession of British commanders-Sir William Howe, Sir Henry Clinton, and Sir Guy Carleton-ruled the city and Long Island as virtual military dictators. They were assisted by American Loyalists.

The Treaty of Paris, which officially ended the Revolutionary War, was signed on 3 September 1783, but New York City was not liberated until November when the British finally withdrew from the city. They were escorted by American troops to British ships to be transported away from American soil. George Washington marched triumphantly into the city on 25 November 1783.

The citizens immediately began to rebuild their city. The population grew rapidly, and New York City became the first capital of the United States of America. Unfortunately, the New York firefighting capability did not keep up with the growing city and there were other destructive fires. Changes in building standards, in firefighting techniques and the organization of a competent fire department began in the nineteenth century. Today New York City has one of the finest fire departments in the world and is a city of stone and steel and skyscrapers. ilur

November 26, 2021December 1, 2021

Call to Revolution by Richard Henry Lee

rilu Richard Henry Lee was an aristocratic planter, merchant, politician, and a member of the prominent and wealthy Lee Family of Virginia. Best known as the man who called for revolution by proposing the successful motion to declare independence from Britain. Although involved in controversy throughout his career, Richard was a key political figure during the revolutionary period and during the establishment of the government of the United States of America. He was always a loyal Virginian who helped establish Virginia’s borders and strongly supported westward expansion. Richard Henry Lee died at the early age of 62 but he accomplished much and was a true patriot and an American hero.

Born in Westmoreland County, Virginia on 20 January 1732 (his family Bible says 1733, but 1732 is what historians have set), Richard Henry Lee was one of eight children of Thomas Lee and Hannah Harrison Ludwell to survive until adulthood. He was one of four boys. The Lee clan was a large aristocratic family of wealthy Virginia planters who had a long history of public service. Richard’s grandfather, father and three brothers all served in military, diplomatic and political positions.

Stratford Hall-Call to Revolution-Richard Henry Lee — Stratford Hall

Richard spent most of his childhood in Westmoreland County in the Northern Neck of Virginia at Stratford Hall. Stratford Hall was completed in 1740 and became the “great house” of the Lee clan. Richard was educated by Alexander White, a family tutor, and he also learned the practical skills needed by a tidewater planter such as farming, horsemanship, and small boat navigation. There were few roads at that time so most travel was by boat on the extensive waterways. Once he had mastered the necessary boating skills, his father allowed him to deliver messages to area planters so that he could become known.

In 1748, teenager Richard departed Virginia and traveled to England for formal education at Wakefield Academy. His mother died in January 1750 and his father, who was acting governor of Virginia, died later the same year. News of the deaths did not reach England until 1751. His eldest brother, Philip, was also in England and asked Richard to accompany him back to Virginia, but Richard refused citing an ongoing romantic relationship. Philip left in a huff, and Richard spent more than a year touring Europe. He arrived in Virginia in 1753 and took up residence at Stratford Hall.

Philip’s relationship with his siblings became more strained during the settlement of their father’s estate, which resulted in contentious lawsuits. Philip being the oldest male was the primary legal heir which gave him control. Finally, their cousin Henry Lee was appointed their legal guardian. Their sibling relationship was never fully resolved but they did eventually unite to protect the family’s economic interests and to defend their father’s political legacy.

Following the Lee family tradition of public service, Philip was appointed to the House of Burgesses in 1755. Richard was appointed justice of the peace for Westmoreland County in 1757.

Anne Aylett - Call to Revolution-Richard Henry Lee — Portrait Anne Aylett

On 3 December 1757 Richard married Anne Aylett of Westmoreland County and began construction of their residence, Chantilly-on-the-Potomac near Stratford Hall. Richard and Anne had four children- two sons and two daughters.

Philip was appointed to the governor’s council in 1758 and Richard was elected to Philip’s vacant seat in the House of Burgesses. Brothers Thomas Ludwell Lee and Francis Lightfoot Lee soon joined Richard in the House as representatives from Stafford and Loudoun counties, respectively.

The Lees became a powerful voting bloc that worked closely with Lieutenant governor, Robert Dinwiddie. Their political strength earned them powerful enemies in the House, and they also inherited enemies their father Thomas had made during his time in the House. Thomas had worked to extend and stabilize Virginia’s western border and formed the Ohio Company of Virginia to help achieve his goal to increase agricultural profits and encourage Indian trade. This was strongly opposed by a faction from the James River region who believed Lee’s policies favored the Northern Neck.

John Robinson-Call to Revolution-Richard Henry Lee — Portrait John Robinson

The leader of the James River faction was John Robinson who had held the offices of Speaker of the House and Treasurer of the colony concurrently for over 20 years. Lt. Governor Dinwiddie believed that was too much power for one man and Richard led a failed attempt to separate the two offices. That resulted in intense hatred by the Robinson faction and their rivalry with the Lee faction continued to grow and fester.

As treasurer, Robinson was responsible for collecting paper currency for taxes and destroying the old bills. Instead, he was loaning this cash to his friends. Although Richard Lee had previously voiced suspicion of this practice, the true extent of corruption was not revealed until Robinson’s death in 1766. The books were opened, and the treasury was found to be nearly 100,000 pounds short. Richard’s role in exposing this corruption earned him the enmity of those prominent Virginians that had profited from Robinson’s scam.

During the 1760’s the British Parliament began a series of policies that severely strained relations with the colonies. The Proclamation of 1763 cut off Virginia’s access to the Ohio River Valley; the 1764 Currency Act ended the use of paper currency for the payment of debts; and the Stamp Act of 1765 imposed a tax on all official paper products.

The British acts led Richard to a radical posture that would eventually put him in the forefront of the push for independence. He was on a committee that in late 1764 drafted a letter to King George III warning him about imposing direct taxes on Virginians. Lee led a protest against the Stamp Act in Westmoreland County that resulted in the “Westmoreland Resolves.” That document was signed by Lee and more than 100 others who swore to oppose the Stamp Act with no regard to “danger or death.”

In 1768 Richard was hunting on his property when his rifle exploded in his hands blowing off four fingers of his left hand. The wound was cauterized to stop the bleeding, and when it healed, he cut off the scar tissue. For the rest of his life, he wore a black silk glove to conceal the injury.

Richard’s wife Anne died in December 1768 of “a severe pluerisy.” The following year he married Anne Gaskins Pinckard, a widow. They would have five children – three daughters and two sons.

In August 1769, a hurricane swept up the Cheasapeake Bay and the Potomac River destroying Stratford Landing, which was a hub of Virginia tobacco trade. It also destroyed several tobacco warehouses operated by the Lee family. The damage was so extensive that Richard took leave from the House of Burgesses to oversee repairs. He did not return until the 1771 session.

Samuel and John Adams-Call for Revolution-Richard Henry Lee — Portraits Samuel and John Adams

In 1774, the American colonists realized that they needed to organize so they could present a united front to King George III’s government. To accomplish this, they formed a Continental Congress which convened in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Richard Henry Lee was elected to be one of Virginia’s delegates arriving in Philadelphia in September 1774. There he met activists John Adams and Samuel Adams. Despite their sectional differences the three formed a powerful political alliance that dominated congress for several years.

Lee supported an economic boycott of British goods and formation of militia units that would be armed by congress. He led the planter’s attack against the Quebec Act which was passed by Parliament in 1774. This act stripped away Virginia’s claim to the Ohio River Valley and gave that land to Quebec. Virginia was the leader of the tobacco trade and needed access to new fertile land since tobacco depletes land rapidly and cannot support multiple generations. Congress organized the boycott of British goods, agreed to reconvene in May 1775, and then disbanded.

The Second Continental Congress convened on 10 May 1775, but the situation had changed. The revolution had started without them at Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts on 19 April 1775. Despite the outbreak of armed clashes, there was a large group of moderates in Congress that sought reconciliation with the Crown. Lee and the Adamses laid low while the moderates attempted to reconcile but events had passed the moderates and they failed.

By letting the moderates make the failed attempt for peace, attitudes changed with most realizing war was inevitable. This played into the Lee-Adams plans and on 7 June 1776, Richard Henry Lee called for revolution by proposing the most momentous resolution in history: “Resolved, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved. That it is expedient forthwith to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances. That a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted to the respective Colonies for their consideration and approbation.”

The debate on Lee’s motion became so heated that John Hancock, President of Congress, had to table further debate until 1 July 1776. In a stroke of genius, Congress also appointed a committee to draft a formal declaration of independence. The committee members were, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Robert Livingston of New York, John Adams of Massachusetts, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut.

The Lee resolution passed on 2 July, and on 4 July 1776 the final draft of the Declaration of Independence was approved by Congress. Richard Henry Lee and Francis Lightfoot Lee were the only brothers to sign the Declaration of Independence. A new nation had been established but it would take eight years of bitter and bloody war to secure it.

Soon after the adoption of the Declaration, John Hancock, and Robert Morris (Pennsylvania delegate) spread the story that Richard Henry Lee and John and Samuel Adams were trying to oust George Washington of his position of Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. They also accused Lee of trying to devalue Virginia’s wartime currency by refusing to accept paper money from his tenants for rent. (In fact, Lee allowed his tenants to pay their rent with grain and tobacco since they had little or no cash.)

Portrait Silas Deane-Call for Revolution-Richard Henry Lee — Portrait Silas Deane

By 1778, the attacks spread to Richard’s brother Arthur who was in France with Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane of Connecticut trying to obtain support for the War. In 1777, Arthur Lee had informed Richard that he suspected Deane was using his position to enrich himself. Richard then led a successful movement to recall Deane and replace him with John Adams.

Deane was outraged and strongly defended himself. Congress divided into two camps-Deane supporters and Lee supporters and the political battles became so bad that the President of the Congress, Henry Laurens of South Carolina resigned. In December 1778, Deane and his supporters accused the Lee family of corruption and of releasing secret information to a British spy. The Deane faction then allied themselves with France and threatened to destroy Virginia’s claim to the Ohio River Valley. Lee was finally able to secure Virginia’s claims, but the political battles drained him physically and emotionally.

Lee was exhausted and disgusted by the highly personal and destructive fights in Congress, so he resigned his seat in the spring of 1779. He returned to his plantation, Chantilly-on-the-Potomac in Westmoreland County.

Once home Lee helped draw up plans to defend the Potomac River against the possibility of a British invasion. He was a colonel in the Westmoreland County Militia and organized supplies for the Continental Army and in 1780 resumed his seat in the House of Delegates. In April 1781, he commanded his militia unit in a skirmish that prevented a British landing in the Stratford area.

In 1783, Lee was again appointed to Congress and was president of that body from November 1783 to November 1785. During his tenure, the Land Ordinance of 1785 was passed. This ordinance established a national policy for settling and selling land west of the Appalachian Mountains.

Lee resigned his seat in Congress in November 1785 due to ill health and returned to Chantilly. Although he stayed out of politics, he did promote George Washington’s efforts to raise money for construction of canals to connect the Potomac and Ohio rivers.

In early 1787, Virginia governor Edmund Randolph asked Lee to attend the Convention which was to address the shortcomings of the Articles of Confederation. Lee declined the appointment but was appointed to Congress in June 1787. Once in Congress he helped draft the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which established the Northwest Territory (present day Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Minnesota) and set the rules and policies for the territory. This act was passed to encourage and assist orderly westward expansion and to set procedures for statehood.

The proposed United States Constitution drafted by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia became available in September 1787 and Lee participated in the Virginia ratification debates. Lee recognized that the draft was a vast improvement over the Articles of Confederation, and he proposed a short list of amendments and joined those insisting on a bill of rights. Lee wrote a letter outlining his opinions on the Constitution to Governor Randolph which was later published in the “Virginia Gazette.” James Madison noted the letter established Lee’s strong antifederalist leanings.

Publication of the letter led to the mistaken speculation that Lee was the author of a series of antifederalist essays entitled “Letters from the Federal Farmer to the Republican.” Federalist supporters of the Constitution branded Lee an “opponent” and made him their main target during the bitter debate. The vicious nature of much of the debate was so bad that Lee withdrew from the public eye.

Virginia ratified the US Constitution on 25 June 1788 and on 8 November, Richard Henry Lee and William Grayson were appointed to the new US Senate for four-year terms. As a Senator, Lee attempted to revive his political partnership with his old ally and president of the Senate, John Adams. However, Lee favored limited government and Adams favored a strong central government and the two could no longer agree.

Lee was a respected senator who earned a reputation as a clear-thinking moderate. However, his health was deteriorating rapidly causing him to miss many legislative sessions. His duties were becoming more than he could physically handle. When he learned in the fall of 1792 that he was being considered for another term, he knew he could not accept. He wrote a letter to the Virginia House of Delegates asking to retire. He said, I have “grown gray in the service of country” and suffer from “infirmities that can only be relieved by a quiet retirement.”

Burnt House Field Burying Ground-Call to Revolution-Richard Henry Lee — Burnt House Field Burying Ground

Lee left the Senate in late 1792 and returned to Chantilly where he died on 19 June 1794 at the age of 62. He was buried at Burnt House Field, the Lee Burying Ground on the site of the Lee mansion, Mount Pleasant, which was burned to the ground by arsonists in 1729.

Richard Henry Lee was a controversial man who contributed much to the establishment and early development of the United States of America. Like all the early patriots, he risked everything, including his life, to pursue a new form of government that had never been tried before. He exemplified the phrase “We the people.”

November 14, 2021November 14, 2021

Bloody Street-1770 Boston Massacre

Many incidents during the American colonial period combined to convince colonists to rebel against the British Crown. The 1770 Boston Massacre was one of the most significant of those incidents because armed British troops fired into an unarmed but hostile and physically confrontational crowd killing five. The American crowd could only be described as a “mob.” They were throwing objects at the soldiers and taunting them with shouts of “fire.” The killing began when one angry and nervous soldier fired without orders and the others reacted by firing into the crowd. News of the Boston Massacre traveled fast and was used to stir up anti-British sentiment for years.

Drawing of Boston Harbor 1770-Blood in the Street-Boston massacre — Drawing of Boston Harbor 1770

Boston was the capital of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and was the major seaport of New England. The city was large and prosperous. It was also the center of resistance to acts by the British Parliament that the colonists believed were unfair and violated American’s rights as British citizens.

Most of Parliament’s acts involved additional taxes. The British were trying to recover the costs of their many wars, including the costly and bloody 1756-1763 French and Indian War (Seven Year’s War in Europe.) They also needed to finance the British troops stationed in America as a security force. The colonists believed they were not responsible to pay taxes that they did not enact and had no sympathy for the British taxes since Britain’s trade with America was quite profitable.

In 1767 and 1768 Parliament passed the Townshend Acts which imposed duties on British china, glass, paint, and tea being imported to the colonies. These items were selected because it was believed they would be difficult for the colonies to produce. Benjamin Franklin had told the British that the colonies would produce their own goods rather than pay the taxes.

The Massachusetts House of Representatives sent a petition to King George III asking for the Townshend Acts to be repealed. They also sent the Massachusetts Circular Letter to the other colonies asking them to join the resistance and calling for a boycott of British goods.

Portrait of Lord Hillsborough-Blood in the Street-Boston Massacre — Portrait of Lord Hillsborough

The petition was rejected and Lord Hillsborough, who had recently been appointed to the new office of Colonial Secretary, was alarmed by the Massachusetts actions. He sent a letter to the American colonial governors ordering them to dissolve any colonial assemblies that responded to the Circular Letter. He also ordered the Massachusetts Governor to direct the House to rescind their letter. The House refused to comply.

Drawing of HMS Romney-Battle with French ship Blood in Street-1770 Boston Massacre — Drawing of HMS Romney-Battle with French Ship

Adding to the building tension, Boston’s customs officer asked Hillsborough for more military support because he claimed the situation was much like it had been at the time of the 1765 Stamp Act. In response, the 50-gun HMS Romney sailed into Boston Harbor in May 1768. In June British customs seized the Liberty, a sloop owned by leading and popular merchant John Hancock claiming it was involved in smuggling. The citizens of Boston were already upset because the Romney captain was impressing American sailors, and they rioted. The customs officials had to flee to Fort William on Castle Island for protection.

In response to the escalating situation, Hillsborough ordered General Thomas Gage to deploy forces “you think necessary” to Boston. Four British Army regiments were deployed in October 1768. Two of those regiments were removed in 1769, but the 14th and 29th Regiments of Foot remained. Each regiment had a roster of about 650 men.

A series of newspaper articles that were mostly exaggerated accounts of clashes between civilians and soldiers contributed to rising tensions. The incident that nearly pushed tensions to the breaking point involved eleven-year-old Christopher Seider who was killed by a customs employee on 22 February 1770. His death and funeral were covered by the Boston Gazette and inflamed the populous. Groups of colonists were looking for British soldiers to harass and the soldiers were expecting confrontations. It all came together and clashed on 5 March 1770.

Hugh White was a private in His Majesty’s 29th Regiment of Foot. He was 30 years old and had served in the British Army for 11 years. On the cold evening of Monday, 5 March 1770 he was stationed at a guard post near the Customs House when an argument began nearby. Edward Garrick was berating British Captain-Lieutenant John Goldfinch about an unpaid bill. Goldfinch had already paid the bill, so he ignored Garrick. Private White then warned Garrick to be more respectful of a British officer, but the argument escalated and became more physical. White left his post, challenged Garrick, and struck him on the head with his musket. (The “Brown Bess” musket weighs nearly 11 pounds.) Garrick’s companion, Bartholomew Broaders then confronted White.

Continental General Henry Knox-Blood in the Street-1770 Boston Massacre — Continental General Henry Knox

This activity attracted a crowd of civilians that were already angry and hostile. The crowd was rapidly growing and becoming more antagonistic. Nineteen-year-old bookseller Henry Knox (future Continental Army general) was on the scene and warned White: “if you fire, you must die for it.” The crowd reached about 50 in number and church bells were rung to call out more.

White retreated to the steps of the Customs House, loaded his musket, and threatened to fire if the crowd attacked him. The crowd led by mixed-race former slave, Crispus Attucks, was taunting White and pressing him to fire his weapon. White knew he was in danger and sent a runner to fetch help. Captain Thomas Preston dispatched one NCO and six privates under his command from the grenadier company of the 29th Regiment of Foot. They deployed to the scene with fixed bayonets. As they forced their way through the crowd to relieve Private White, Henry Knox, who was personally acquainted with many British officers, took Preston by the coat, and warned him; “For God’s sake, take care of your men. If they fire, you must die.” Preston replied that he was aware of the danger.

Once they reached Private White, Preston’s troops loaded their muskets and with fixed bayonets established a defensive line around White. By this time, the crowd was estimated to be between 300 and 400. They were taunting the soldiers by yelling for them to “fire,” throwing objects and snowballs and spitting at them. At this point, a heavy thrown object struck Private Hugh Montogomery knocking him down and causing him to drop his musket. When he recovered his weapon he shouted, “Damn you, fire!” and fired into the crowd.

Colorized Revere Etching-Boston Massacre-Blood in the Street-1770 Boston Massacre — Colorized Revere Etching-Boston Massacre

There was a short pause, after which the soldiers fired a sporadic volley into the crowd. It was not a disciplined volley because Preston had not given an order to fire. Eleven civilians were struck. Three, Crispus Attucks, ropemaker Samuel Gray, and mariner James Caldwell, died instantly. Samuel Maverick, a 17-year-old apprentice ivory turner died the next morning. Irish immigrant Patrick Carr died two weeks later. Apprentice Christopher Monk was permanently crippled and died several years later.

Thomas Hutchinson-Portrait by Truman -Blood in the Street-1770 Boston Massacre — Thomas Hutchinson-Portrait by Truman

The gunfire stunned the crowd, and although they left the immediate area, their numbers were still increasing in nearby streets. Captain Preston called out most of the 29th Regiment and set up defensive positions around the nearby State House. Acting Governor Thomas Hutchison was called to the scene but was forced into the State House by the crowd. From the balcony, Hutchison assured the crowd that there would be a fair inquiry into the incident if they would disperse and order was slowly restored.

True to his word, Hutchison began his investigation immediately and the next morning Preston and the eight soldiers were arrested. Boston’s Selectmen asked Hutchison to order all British troops to move to Fort William on Castle Island. The colonists held a town meeting which resulted in a request that all British troops be moved out of the city.

The 14th Regiment moved out about a week later. General Gage was convinced that the troops were doing more harm than good, and he ordered the 29th Regiment out of the city in May. This left Governor Hutchison without adequate means to police the city, and the citizens were very hostile towards British troops and their dependents.

On 27 March, the eight soldiers, Captain Preston, and four civilians were indicted for murder. The civilians had been in the Customs House and allegedly fired shots. Hutchison took advantage of the high tensions to justify delaying the trials until later in the year. This would seem on the surface to be a wise decision to allow passions to cool.

The first trial did not begin until late October 1770 and the intervening period was flooded with highly inflammatory and usually inaccurate information about the incident. Loyalists portrayed the crowd as “brutish” and spoiling for a fight and the soldiers as good guys. Boston patriots portrayed the exact opposite and used their publications to successfully stir up revolutionary fervor among the people.

The most famous artist depiction of the Boston Massacre was originally done by engraver Henry Pelham. Silversmith and engraver Paul Revere closely copied the Pelham image and is usually credited as the originator. The engraving shows Captain Preston ordering his men to fire. A musket is shown firing out of a window of the Customs Hall, which is labeled “Butcher’s Hall.” This engraving was published by the Boston Gazette and a colorized version was distributed throughout New England.

Anonymous pamphlets describing the Boston Massacre and other soldier/civilian confrontations were also published. Some claimed the British had planned to cause harm and indiscriminately fired on peaceful law-abiding citizens. Boston officials held back many of these publications to avoid tainting the jury pool. They did, however, send copies to other colonies and to London. Governor Hutchison published a pamphlet claiming Bostonians denied British law and were lawless. He also claimed that the colonists planned to ambush the soldiers. His pamphlet was published later than most of the others and had little effect on the public.

John Adams-Portrait by Durand-Blood in the Street-1770 Boston Massacre — John Adams-Portrait by Durand

Finding a legal defense team was difficult since the government wanted to have a fair trial that would not be challenged by either side. Many lawyers refused the job, but the government finally convinced John Adams to be the lead defense attorney. He was joined by Josiah Quincy II after he was assured the Sons of Liberty would not object, and by Loyalist Robert Auchmuty. They were assisted by Sampson Salter Blowers who investigated the jury pool. Solicitor General Samuel Quincy and attorney Robert Treat Paine served as prosecutors.

Captain Preston was tried first and was acquitted. Despite contridictatory testimony, the jury was convinced that he had not ordered his troops to open fire.

The trial of the eight soldiers began on 27 November 1770. Adams told the jury to ignore the fact that the soldiers were British, and he denigrated the civilians. He said they were “a motley rabble of saucy boys, negroes, and molattoes, Irish teagues, and outlandish Jack Tarr’s.” He said the term “mob” was too respectable for them. He also claimed that Crispus Attucks grabbed a soldier’s bayonet and knocked the soldier down, which caused the shooting. This was contradicted by witnesses who stated Attucks was 12-15 feet away from the soldiers when the firing began. Adams also argued that the soldiers had a legal right to fight back and so were innocent.

Adams successfully convinced the jury and they acquitted six of the soldiers. The jury was swayed by the deathbed testimony of Irishman Patrick Carr who testified that he had never seen any soldiers bear as much as the British had. This is one of the earliest recorded uses of the “dying declaration” exception of the inadmissibility of hearsay evidence in the United States legal code.

Two soldiers, Hugh Montgomery, and Matthew Kilroy were convicted of manslaughter because there was overwhelming evidence that they had fired directly into the crowd. The penalty for manslaughter was death.

The convicted soldiers managed to get reduced sentences by pleading “benefit of clergy,” which exempted clergymen, including men with the ability to read or recite Biblical passages, from trial by secular courts. The benefit of clergy penalty for manslaughter was branding of the thumb in open court. This punishment was carried out on 14 December. The convicted read Bible passages and a red-hot iron was used to brand their thumbs with an “M” for manslaughter.

The four civilians were tried on 13 December. The main witness against them was a servant of one of the accused. This servant made claims that were soundly refuted by other witnesses and the four were acquitted. The servant, however, was later convicted of perjury, whipped, and banished from the colony.

Portrait of Samuel Adams-Blood in the Street-1770 Boston Massacre — Portrait of Samuel Adams

The hostility between soldiers and Bostonians cooled down slightly, but only temporarily, after the trials. Boston activists used the massacre to build support for independence. Samuel Adams successfully campaigned to make 5 March an official “day of mourning.” He and others used these annual commemorations to stir up the citizens with fiery speeches to keep the memory of the massacre in the public eye.

It was five years before war began and some historians still argue about how much the Boston Massacre contributed to the beginning of war, but most believe it was a major factor. John Adams wrote that the “foundation of American independence was laid” on 5 March 1770. Later incidents such as the Gaspee Affair and the Boston Tea Party built on the effects of the Boston Massacre and convinced Americans to take up arms against King George III.

Drawing of Death of Crispus Attucks-Blood in the Street-1770 Boston Massacre — Drawing of Death of Crispus Attucks

The Boston Massacre spawned a large amount of art and publications to commemorate the incident and to emphasize certain facts. It is often used to appropriately point out that a black man was one of the first to die for American independence. In 1888, the Boston Massacre Monument was erected on the Boston Common in memory of the men killed that day, and five of the victims were reinterred in a prominent grave in the Granary Burying Ground. The massacre is still reenacted annually by the Bostonian Society. The Old State House, the massacre site and the Granary Burying Ground are part of Boston’s Freedom Trail.

There have been many incidents in American history that have changed our world. The Boston Massacre, the burning of the White House, the firing on Fort Sumpter, the sinking of the USS Maine, the sinking of the SS Lusitania, the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the invasion of Korea, the TET Offensive, and 9/11 to mention only a few. As the years pass the passions and significance of those events fade from our national memory and become only words in a history book. Many young people don’t even know they happened. We should never forget the people who have died to make and keep us free. American history is filled with common people who displayed uncommon valor. The heroes, the leaders, and even the cowards and turncoats all deserve to be remembered.

November 1, 2021November 1, 2021

Amazing John Jay – No. 1 Negotiator

John Jay - National Portrait Gallery - John Jay - Treaty Man — John Jay – National Portrait Gallery

John Jay was an American revolutionary and statesman. Although initially opposed to independence, he became an ardent revolutionary politician. He served in the Continental Congress, became a diplomat, wrote five of the 85 Federalist Papers essays, and was the first Chief Justice of the US Supreme Court. He was the second governor of New York, but ill health prevented more service. John Jay was an honest and honorable man who devoted his working life to the service of America and was a true patriot and hero.

John Jay was born on 12 December 1745 in New York City into a prominent family of wealthy merchants and New York government officials. His father was Peter Jay of French Huguenot descent. Peter was a successful trader of commodities such as furs, grains, and timber. His mother was Mary Van Cortlandt of Dutch descent. The wealthy Cortlandt family was involved in New York politics and military.

Three months after John Jay’s birth the family moved to Rye, New York. Peter Jay had retired from business following a smallpox epidemic in New York City. Unfortunately, two of their children contracted smallpox which resulted in blindness.

John Jay was educated by his mother until he was eight years old when he was sent to New Rochelle, New York to study under Anglican priest Pierre Stoupe. After three years of extremely strict discipline and Spartan living conditions in New Rochelle, he returned to homeschooling. In 1760 at 14 years old, He entered King’s College (Columbia University today). At King’s college, Jay made many influential friends, including Robert Livingston whose father became a Justice of the Supreme Court.

Lindley Murray - John Jay - Treaty Man — Lindley Murray

After graduating in 1764, Jay became a law clerk and student of Benjamin Kissam, a prominent lawyer, politician, and law instructor. Kissam’s other students included Lindley Murray who became a prominent lawyer, writer, and grammarian. His grammar books were widely used in England and America.

Jay was admitted to the New York bar in 1768 and in 1771 established his own law practice. Politically he was a staunch Whig and conservative and became secretary of the New York Committee of Correspondence. He worked to protect property rights and the rule of law while resisting what he regarded as British violations of American rights. He did not favor independence and feared the prospect of “mob rule.”

In 1774, Jay became a delegate to the First Continental Congress, where he sided with the faction that favored reconciliation with Britain. However, violent British actions against the colonists pushed him to support independence. Once war began, he became a radical patriot and worked tirelessly for the “Glorious Cause.”

Sarah Van Livingston - John Jay - Treaty Man — Sarah Van Livingston

John Jay married Sarah Van Livingston on 28 April 1774. Sarah was the daughter of New Jersey Governor William Livingston. She was seventeen years old, and John was twenty-eight. They had six children. Their relationship was close, and Sarah and the children accompanied him on his assignments to Spain and France.

Upon the conclusion of the Continental Congress in 1774, Jay returned to New York where he again became involved in New York politics. He was elected to the third New York Provincial Congress where he helped draft the New York Constitution. On 8 May 1777, he was elected Chief Justice of the New York Supreme Court of Judicature. He served for two years.

On 10 December 1778, the Second Continental Congress elected Jay president of the congress. The position was mostly ceremonial with no real power but was an honor. He served until he was appointed Minister to Spain on 27 September 1779.

His diplomatic mission to Spain was to obtain financial aid, commercial treaties, and recognition of American independence. The Spanish royal court refused to officially receive Jay as the Minister of the United States fearing that recognition would spark revolution in Spanish colonies. He did, however, convince the Spanish to loan the United States government $170,000. The Jay family departed Spain on 20 May 1782.

Jay’s diplomatic duties did not end when he left Spain. On 23 June 1782 he arrived in Paris where negotiations to end the American War for Independence would take place. The Congress had appointed five negotiators, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, John Jay, Thomas Jefferson, and Henry Laurens. Jefferson did not travel to Paris and Laurens joined the team two days before the treaty was signed. The active American negotiators were Franklin, Adams, and Jay. Franklin was the most experienced American diplomat and Jay wanted to learn from him, so he and his family resided with Franklin.

The American Revolutionary War was a world war since it involved Britain, France, Spain, and the Netherlands who all had colonies in the New World. The Americans agreed to negotiate with Britain separately and in July, the Earl of Shelburne proposed terms for peace. Jay rejected the offer because it did not recognize American independence. This rejection delayed negotiations until fall of 1782.

The final treaty established that Britain agreed that the thirteen colonies were free and independent and that British troops would be withdrawn from American soil. Also, the Americans were granted Newfoundland fishing rights. The Americans agreed to end seizures of loyalist property and to honor private debts.

Treaty of Paris Signing by Benjamin West - British Refused to Sit For Painting - John Jay - Treaty Man — Treaty of Paris Signing by Benjamin West (British Refused to Sit For Painting)

The Treaty of Paris was signed on 3 September 1783 and ratified by congress on 14 January 1784. It granted the United States independence but left some borders in dispute and many provisions were never enforced. The British did not withdraw all their troops and in practice did not accept American independence. The British did not treat the US as a sovereign state until the Americans defeated them again in the War of 1812.

What the treaty did do was end the long and bloody war and officially free the British colonies to become a new nation, which was what all Americans wanted. John Adams credited Jay with having the leading role in the treaty negotiations, and he was publicly praised for his peacemaking skills.

While in Paris, Jay’s father died, greatly adding to his family responsibilities. His two blind siblings became dependent on him, his brother Fredrick had perpetual financial problems, and his brother Augustus had severe mental problems. He had to support all financially and emotionally, which had to be a significant strain on him, his wife, and children. In addition, his brother James was an ardent loyalist, and a family embarrassment.

John Jay did not get much rest after the Treaty of Paris because he became the second Secretary of Foreign Affairs under the Articles of Confederation in 1784. He served until 1789. The US Constitution was ratified in June 1788 and Jay’s office was designated the Department of State which made him acting Secretary of State.

During his five-year tenure in foreign affairs, Jay began to establish a strong foreign policy, sought recognition of the great powers of the day, helped establish a stable American currency and international credit. He also wanted to pay-off the war debt, secure the nation’s borders, and solve regional differences among the states. If that was not enough, he wanted to establish robust maritime trade, protect shipping from piracy, establish and preserve America’s reputation at home and abroad, and hold the country together under the weak Articles of Confederation.

Jay did not attend the Constitutional Convention, but joined Alexander Hamilton and James Madison arguing for a strong, powerful, and balanced central government. They presented their opinions in a series of articles that we know as The Federalist Papers, which were published under alias. Jay authored five of the eighty-five essays. The Federalist Papers are still used today for constitutional and historical research since they are a window into the thinking and intentions of those involved in developing the Constitution.

President George Washington offered Jay the position of Secretary of State, but he refused. Washington responded by offering him the position of Chief Justice of the United States which he regarded as the “keystone of our political fabric.” Jay accepted, was confirmed by the Senate, and was sworn in on 19 October 1789. Five Associate Justices were also sworn in completing the Court. (The Constitution does not establish the size of the Court. That responsibility was given to Congress.)

Being the first Supreme Court, much time was involved in establishing rules and procedures and the duties of the justices. In the early years of the Court, the justices also had circuit court duties in the federal judicial districts and they physically “rode the circuits.”

It was three years before the first case came to the Supreme Court and it was soon followed by three more. None were momentous but they were significant. The Court’s judicial decisions reinforced the principle of “separation of powers,” established that states were subject to judicial review, and clarified jury responsibilities.

Probably the most important decision made by Chief Justice Jay was not related to case law. In 1790 Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton wrote to him asking for the Court’s endorsement of proposed legislation. Jay replied that the Court’s business was restricted to ruling on the constitutionality of cases brought before it and could not take a position on legislation. This was a clear statement of the principle of separation of powers and clearly established that the Supreme Court should stay out of partisan politics.

Although he was still Chief Justice, Jay was the Federalist candidate for New York governor in 1792. Democratic-Republican George Clinton defeated him. He received more votes than Clinton but votes in three counties were disqualified on technicalities giving Clinton a narrow win.

By 1794 relations with Britain again verged on war. British goods dominated the American market while American goods were blocked from British markets. The British still occupied forts that they had agreed in the Treaty of Paris to leave, they were seizing American supplies bound for France, and were impressing American sailors. These were overt acts of war. James Madison proposed a trade war of “commercial hostility” to retaliate. He believed the British were weakened by their war with France and would not declare war on the US but would concede to American demands.

President Washington rejected Madison’s proposal and chose diplomacy. He assigned John Jay to negotiate a treaty with the British and Alexander Hamilton wrote the administration’s guidance for Jay. Hamilton, in an ill-advised attempt to improve relations with Britain, secretly informed them that the US would be willing to compromise on most issues. This undercut Jay’s ability to negotiate by removing the little leverage he had.

First Page of Jay's Treaty - John Jay - Treaty Man — First Page of Jay’s Treaty

Jay brought the final draft of the treaty, amazingly known as “Jay’s Treaty,” to Philadelphia in March 1795. The treaty was very strongly opposed. Since he was Chief Justice, Jay did not take part in the debates. The treaty ended Britain’s control of northwestern forts, although they again ignored this provision. It granted the US “most favored nation” trade status; however, the US agreed to restricted commercial access to the British West Indies. The treaty did not resolve American grievances about neutral shipping rights and US sailor impressment. The Royal Navy was free to continue interference with American shipping and to impress American sailors.

The Democratic-Republicans severely denounced the treaty and Jay. Southerners bitterly opposed the treaty because there was no compensation for slaves that were freed and transported away by the British during the Revolutionary War. Jefferson and Madison led this disparate but strong opposition because they feared a commercial alliance with a monarchy would undercut republicanism.

The Jay Treaty was sure to be defeated, but President Washington put his prestige behind it and Alexander Hamilton, and the Federalists mobilized public opinion. Despite this support, the senate ratified the treaty by exactly a two-thirds majority, the minimum required.

The Democratic-Republicans were enraged by ratification and protesters denounced Jay with slogans like: “Damn John Jay! Damn everyone who won’t damn John Jay!!!” One newspaper wrote: “John Jay, ah! The arch traitor – seize him, drown him, burn him, flay him alive.” Jay joked that he could travel at night from Boston to Philadelphia solely by the light from his burning effigies.

In May 1795, while still in Britain, Jay was elected the second governor of New York on the Federalist ticket. He resigned from the Supreme Court on 29 June 1795 and served six years as governor.

Shortly after Jay took office, Hamilton sent him a letter proposing that he gerrymander the New York districts for the 1796 presidential election. Proving again that he was a principled public servant, Jay marked the letter “Proposing a measure for party purposes which it would not become me to adopt.” He then filed the letter without replying.

Politics in New York were highly partisan and corrupt when Jay was elected and to the chagrin of his party, he eliminated corrupt practices whenever he could. He insisted that the only criterion for office was ability and he regularly overruled party bosses.

Governor Jay was extremely popular with the people because he worked to improve business and the quality of life. He streamlined government and the judicial system, improved canal navigation, reformed the prison system and the treatment of prisoners, supported efforts to abolish debtors’ prison and to eliminate slavery. His tenure was characterized by honor and principle.

John Adams lost the 1800 election and was making “midnight” judicial appointments before leaving office. He nominated Jay to his former position of Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and the Senate quickly confirmed him. Jay declined citing ill health and the Court’s “lack of relevancy.” Adams then made the best appointment of his career by nominating John Marshall to be Chief Justice. Jay also declined renomination for New York governor and retired in 1801.

Jay turned to farming in Westchester County, New York. Soon after on 18 May 1802 his beloved wife Sarah died. Jay continued farming and stayed out of politics except in 1819 when he wrote a letter opposing Missouri’s bid for admission to the union as a slave state.

Jay Mansion, Rye, New York - John Jay - Treaty Man — Jay Mansion, Rye, New York By JayHeritageCenter – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0,

The later years of Jay’s life were marred by poor health, but his mind remained clear. On 14 May 1829, he was stricken with palsy, probably the result of a stroke. He died three days later. He had chosen to be buried at his boyhood home of Rye, New York. In 1807 he had moved the remains of his wife Sarah and those of his colonial ancestors from the family vault in Manhattan, New York to Rye establishing a private cemetery. Today this cemetery is closed to the public and is still maintained by Jay descendants. It is the oldest active cemetery associated with a revolutionary figure.

John Jay contributed much to the early development of the US and earned a special position among America’s founders. Politics and diplomacy are deceitful and double-dealing professions, but Jay always tried to act honestly and with honor. He certainly was not perfect but maintained a powerful sense of honor throughout his life no matter the consequences. He was a loving and loyal family man who accepted personal and family responsibility without complaint.

America has appropriately remembered and honored John Jay. Many towns, other geographic features, and schools bear his name. Exceptional graduates at Columbia University are known as “John Jay Scholars.” The John Jay Liberty Issue postage stamp was printed in 1958. Statues, busts, and portraits of Jay are found throughout the US, including in the New York Capital, the US Capital, and the US Supreme Court.

October 1, 2021October 1, 2021

Alexander Hamilton – Financial Genius

Alexander Hamilton was one of the most influential American founders. He was a statesman, politician, legal scholar, military officer, lawyer, banker, and economist. He was a staunch supporter and interpreter of the US Constitution. As the First Secretary of the Treasury, he basically founded the American financial system. He favored a strong federal government led by an active executive branch, strong commerce and industry, and a strong military. Hamilton contributed much and had a great future, but his highly partisan politics punctuated by an outspoken and polarizing presentation led to fierce opposition and was a major factor in the incidents that led to his early death in a duel with political foe, Aaron Burr.

Alexander Hamilton and his brother James Jr. Were born into obscurity and out of wedlock in Charlestown, Nevis in the Leeward Islands, which were then a part of the British West Indies. Their mother was Rachel Faucette, a married woman of British and French Huguenot descent. Their father was James A. Hamilton, a Scotsman who was the fourth son of Alexander Hamilton the laird of Orange in Ayrshire.

Rachel had been married to a Danish or German merchant, Johann Michael Lavien, on the Danish-owned Island of St. Croix. They had one son but in 1750 she left this family and moved to St. Kitts where she met James Hamilton. The couple then moved to Nevis where Rachel had inherited a building lot from her father.

Alexander listed his birth date as 11 January 1757 although there is some evidence that it was 1755. I believe 1757 is most likely because he said it was.

James Hamilton abandoned Rachel and the two boys, and she moved them to St. Croix. She supported the family by keeping a small store; however, she died on 19 February 1768 after contracting yellow fever. Rachel’s legal husband, Johann Lavien, seized her small estate in probate court but a friend bought the family’s books and gave them to Alexander. The Hamilton brothers were denied membership in the Church of England because their parents were not legally married.

Alexander became a clerk in a local import-export firm that traded with New York and New England. Both boys were briefly taken in by their cousin, Peter Lytton, but Lytton committed suicide in July 1769. He left his property to his mistress and their son. The Hamilton’s were again homeless, but James apprenticed with a carpenter, and Alexander was given a home by Nevis merchant Thomas Stevens.

Despite his youth, Alexander proved to be capable and reliable enough to be left in charge of the firm for five months while the owner was at sea. Hamilton was an avid reader and did some writing. In a letter to his father, he described a hurricane that had devastated Christiansted on 30 August 1772. His tutor and mentor, Hugh Knox, was so impressed by the letter that he submitted it for publication in the Royal Danish-American Gazette. Hamilton biographer Ron Chernow found the letter to be astounding that a self-educated clerk could write such a vivid description that also claim the hurricane was a “divine rebuke to human vanity and pomposity.” Community leaders were impressed enough to send Hamilton to the North American colonies for his education.

Alexander Hamilton arrived in Boston in October 1772 and proceeded to New York City where he obtained lodging with Hercules Mulligan. Mulligan’s brother was a trader and assisted Hamilton in selling cargo to finance his education. In 1773 Hamilton attended a preparatory school in Elizabethtown, New Jersey. There he was influenced by a local intellectual and American revolutionary, William Livingston.

In the fall of 1773, Hamilton became a” private student” at King’s College (now Columbia) in New York City. His college roommate and lifelong friend, Robert Troup, noted Hamilton’s clarity and logic in presenting the patriot cause on 6 July 1774 at the Liberty Pole at King’s College. Hamilton had become a supporter of the American Revolutionary cause and when Samuel Seabury, a Church of England clergyman published pamphlets promoting the Loyalist cause, Hamilton responded anonymously with his first political writings.

Although he was a revolutionary, Hamilton did not approve of mob reprisals against Loyalists. He was credited with saving his college president and Loyalist, Myles Cooper, from an angry mob on 10 May 1775. It took courage to speak to and confront a mob while their target escaped.

After the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord, Hamilton and other King’s College students joined a New York militia unit. Hamilton studied military history and tactics on his own and soon won promotion. He led a successful raid that captured British cannon while under fire from a British Ship. Possession of these cannon resulted in the unit becoming an artillery company in the Continental Army.

Through his connections with New York patriots Alexander McDougall and John Jay, Hamilton raised the New York Provincial Artillery Company and took part in the 1776 campaign around New York City. In the 3 January 1777 Battle of Princeton, actions by Hamilton and his artillery resulted in the capture of 194 British soldiers.

Portrait of -Alexander Hamilton-Financial Genius — General George Washington-by R.Peale

As his reputation grew, Hamilton was invited to serve as an aide by two generals, but he declined believing glory on the battlefield was the best avenue to improving his station in life. In March 1777 Hamilton received an invitation to serve as an aide to General Washington. He recognized a true opportunity and did not decline. He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel and served four years as Washington’s chief staff aide.

In his position, Hamilton handled correspondence with Congress, state governors, and powerful generals of the Continental Army. He drafted many of Washington’s orders and letters, and eventually issued Washington’s orders over his own signature. He was involved in a very wide range of duties as the General’s personal representative.

Portrait -Elizabeth Schuyler-Alexander Hamilton-Financial Genius — Elizabeth Schuyler

While serving in the military, Hamilton also managed to have a personal life. During the winter of 1779-1780 he was stationed in Morristown, New Jersey where he met Elizabeth Schuyler, a daughter of General Philip and Catherine Schuyler. Alexander and Elizabeth were married at the Schuyler Mansion in Albany, New York on 14 December 1780. The couple eventually had eight children who all lived to adulthood.

Hamilton always realized that combat command was his best avenue to improve his station in life. He could also see that the end of the war was getting nearer and his chances for battlefield glory were growing slimmer. He wanted a combat command, but Washington saw Hamilton as a valuable member of his staff and did not want to release him.

Washington was always under a great deal of pressure and sometimes was super-critical of his staff over minor situations. On 15 February 1781, Washington reprimanded Hamilton after an insignificant misunderstanding. As usual, Washington quickly tried to repair the situation, but Hamilton resigned from the staff. He officially departed in March and he and Elizabeth settled nearby.

Hamilton repeatedly requested a field command, but Washington refused citing the need to appoint men of higher rank. Finally in July 1781, Hamilton submitted a letter to the general that contained his commission, which suggested he would resign if he did not get a command.

Washington finally relented and assigned Hamilton commander of a New York battalion of light infantry and two Connecticut provisional companies.

In the spring of 1781, Washington and Lieutenant General Rochambeau decided to move the Northern Army south to Yorktown, Virginia to confront Lord Cornwallis who was encamped there. They managed to rapidly move the entire army arriving on 28 September. American and French engineers dug a series of parallel trenches in preparation for a major attack on the British position. The British were essentially trapped since French warships in the Chesapeake Bay blocked their only avenue of retreat.

American and French artillery began the preparatory artillery barrage on 9 October. The British, however, still maintained a narrow route for resupply and reinforcements which was protected by defensive Redoubts # 9 and # 10. These redoubts had to be taken to make the British position untenable.

French units were assigned to take Redoubt # 10, and Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Hamilton with 400 light infantry was assigned to take Redoubt # 9. The attacks commenced on the night of 14 October with a diversionary attack on a different redoubt. The two primary attacking units advanced with bayonets fixed on unloaded muskets to maintain silence. Both encountered heavy resistance but after fierce close quarter fighting both redoubts were taken. These victories closed the gap and Cornwallis was surrounded and completely cut off from the outside. Cornwallis attempted a counterattack on 15 October, but it was a miserable failure.

On 17 October, a lone British drummer boy beating “parley” and one British officer with a white flag asked for a meeting. This officer began the initial negotiations for the surrender of Cornwallis’ 9,000-man army. The formal surrender occurred on 19 October 1781. (Cornwallis did not attend the formal surrender and had a subordinate surrender his sword.) This date is considered the de facto end of the War, although small actions continued for two more years until the Treaty of Paris was signed on 3 September 1783. The British forces then withdrew.

After his heroic actions at Yorktown, Hamilton returned to New York and resigned his commission in March 1782. He passed the bar in July and accepted an offer from Robert Morris to become receiver of Continental taxes for the state of New York. He was also appointed a New York representative to the Congress of the Confederation beginning in November 1782.

Hamilton had seen how ineffective the Confederation Congress was while on Washington’s staff, and he was openly critical. A series of unsuccessful attempts by Congress to improve the situation further demonstrated the impotence of the Confederation government.

Some opponents of the Confederation unwisely attempted to use discontent in the army to bring about changes. The army had not yet been disbanded and was posted at Newburgh, New York. It was in near mutiny over back pay and officer’s pensions. A military delegation had been sent to Congress in an attempt to resolve the situation but were turned down because Congress had no way of raising the funds. Obviously, the Army was not pleased about the situation. Several congressmen, including Hamilton, Robert Morris and Gouverneur Morris tried to use the army to force changes. They suggested the army threaten Congress and that General Henry Knox defy civilian authority by not disbanding. They also tried to involve General Washington in this attempt to usurp civilian authority, but Washington warned them of the dangers of using the army as leverage against Congress.

This attempt certainly was not the American way. From the first, the military was supposed to be nonpolitical and to not interfere with the operation of the government. Fortunately, George Washington did decide to intervene but not in the way the plotters wanted. He addressed the officers personally and defused the whole situation.

The army disbanded in April 1783 and Congress tried to address the back pay situation but were again unsuccessful because the Articles of Confederation did not give them the power to raise funds. The military situation was not completely dead, however, because a group of disgruntled Pennsylvania soldiers marched on Philadelphia in June 1783 to demand their back pay. Although they caused the government to temporarily relocate to Princeton, New Jersey, the marchers were unsuccessful.

After all the confusion, Hamilton called for the Articles to be revised and suggested many features that were eventually incorporated in the Constitution. Hamilton resigned from Congress in 1783 and returned to New York City when the British withdrew from that city. He began practicing law with Richard Harison. They specialized in defending Tories and British subjects who claimed damages at the hand of Revolutionaries.

In 1784, Hamilton founded the Bank of New York, which is still in operation today. In addition, he was one of the men that restored King’s College as Columbia College. The college had been severely damaged during the war. He also attended the Annapolis Convention which resulted in a strong call for a constitutional convention.

In 1787, Hamilton served as assemblyman from New York County to the state legislature. His father-in-law, Philip Schuyler, chose him to be a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. New York governor, George Clinton, chose the other two delegates. They were both opposed to Hamilton’s stand for a strong central government, so the New York delegation always voted 2 to 1 against changes to the Articles.

Hamilton proposed having a president and senators elected for life, which caused other delegates to consider him to be a monarchist. Hamilton defended his position stating that impeachment would prevent any abuse of powers but some of his rhetoric sounded like a defense of monarchies. James Madison believed Hamilton was advocating for the “rich and well born” which essentially isolated Hamilton. Most delegates believed his ideas did not reflect the principles of the Revolution and liberty.

The final draft of the Constitution did not fully satisfy Hamilton, but he signed it because he believed it was a significant improvement over the Articles of Confederation. He also urged all other delegates to sign. He then took an active role in the successful campaign for the document’s ratification by New York in 1788. During that debate, a faction led by Governor Clinton wanted to amend the Constitution, but the Hamilton faction opposed any amendments. This became moot when enough states ratified the draft to make it the law of the land. Even so, the New York vote for ratification was quite close being 30 to 27.

In 1787 Hamilton had recruited John Jay and James Madison to write a series of essays to defend the proposed Constitution. We know these essays as The Federalist Papers, which were published using aliases. Hamilton’s alias was Publius. Eighty-five essays were published – Hamilton wrote 51, Madison 29, and Jay five. These essays are still studied by jurists and researchers to delve into the thinking and intentions of our founders when they drafted the Constitution.

As a member of the New York legislature, Hamilton was actively involved in the admission of Vermont into the union. This interesting saga began in 1764 when King George III ruled in favor of New York in a dispute between New York and New Hampshire over the region that became Vermont. As a result of the ruling, New York refused to recognize land grants that had been issued when the area had been a de facto part of New Hampshire. New York’s actions were strongly resisted by the inhabitants of the area. The Green Mountain Boys who gained fame during the Revolutionary War were originally raised to resist the colonial government of New York. By 1777 the residents of the disputed area declared they were a separate state called Vermont and by the next year had elected a state government.

Vermont was repeatedly denied representation in the Continental congress during the 1777 to 1785 period. Since they were rejected by Congress, they declared they were not a part of the United States. However, the peace treaty ending the Revolutionary War included Vermont by name with the other colonies. In 1784 Governor Clinton of New York actually asked Congress to declare war on Vermont, but Congress did not act.

By 1787 New York had given up plans to subjugate Vermont but still claimed jurisdiction. Hamilton had been arguing for recognition of Vermont against strong resistance and was in contact with Vermont’s attorney. Hamilton recognized that after the 1788 establishment of the United States, Vermont’s statehood could be considered with that of Kentucky.

Once the New York-Vermont border was established and New York made some financial compensation, Vermont was finally admitted to the Union in 1791.

Alexander Hamilton’s talents really began to shine when President George Washington appointed him the first Secretary of the Treasury on 11 September 1789. He served in that position until 31 January 1795. Most of the basic structure, responsibilities, and functions of the US Government were worked out during the Washington administration, and Hamilton had a major influence on the outcomes.

Hamilton developed his government position based on the British First Lord of the Treasury and equivalent to a prime minister. He acted as leader of the president’s cabinet and saw the treasury department and monetary policies as the primary key to strengthening and stabilizing the new government. Armed with this belief and his talents, he founded the stable financial system that we rely on today. Hamilton’s influence projected into other areas too because Washington relied on him and sought out his advice and assistance on many matters.

In September 1789 Congress requested that Hamilton submit a report on ways to improve the public credit. Hamilton and Robert Morris had long agreed that establishment of stable public credit was essential to achieving true independence. Besides his own extensive knowledge, Hamilton used French, British, and other American sources to prepare the report.

Hamilton, submitted that securities should be paid at the full value to their legitimate owners, including to those who purchased government bonds that most believed would never be valuable enough to redeem. He argued that liberty and security of property were inseparable and that government honoring contracts was the basis of public and private morality.

The Revolutionary War put the country into considerable debt. Hamilton divided debt into national and state, and the national debt was further divided into foreign and domestic. This division allowed treasury and Congress to address each one separately with the capability to apply unique solutions. Hamilton suggested combining state debt into the national debt and considering it all as federal debt. This suggestion was voted down by Congress.

Taxes on distilleries and land, and duties on imports were established to support the government and Hamilton proposed a method to eventually pay off the federal debt. Once Congress took up the national finances, the debate became ugly and political much like it does today.

Hamilton had long believed that a National Bank should be established and in 1790 he officially proposed that such a bank be chartered. He proposed the bank be capitalized with 10 million dollars and be governed by an appointed board of directors. The Madison proposal passed the Senate easily but ran into a buzzsaw in the House. Opponents argued that Hamilton was serving the interests of the Northeast and favoring the wealthy. James Madison argued that the bill was unconstitutional. The detractors were powerful and vocal but did not carry the day. The bill passed by a vote of 39 to 20 on 8 February 1791.

Opponents of the National Bank carried their arguments to President Washington trying to convince him to veto the bill. However, Washington signed the bill into law.

It should be pointed out that the proposed move of the government from New York City to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, or to Virginia was complicating all legislation. Every politician and businessman had an opinion, and the outcome involved a lot of money and prestige.

Smuggling, pirating, and a lack of control of shipping in American waters had been a problem since before the Revolution and since had only gotten worse. Hamilton proposed that Congress establish a force of armed revenue cutters to patrol American waters and to assist custom collectors. Congress established the Revenue Cutter Service on 4 August 1790, which is considered the birth of the United States Coast Guard.

In 1791 Hamilton proposed the establishment of a National Mint. At the time, the US relied on Spanish currency. He proposed a dollar coin weighing nearly as much as the Spanish peso. He also proposed fractional coins based on decimals, such as 10 cent, one cent and half cent. This was a first and was because Hamilton wanted Americans of all economic classes to become accustomed to handling money.

There was wide political support for a mint and Congress passed the Coinage Act of 1792 establishing the United States Mint. Congress authorized a ten-dollar gold Eagle coin, a silver dollar, and fractional coins. The mint issued the first coins in 1795.

All governments must be financed which means TAXES. Americans had just fought a war that was largely about taxation. Taxes are never popular, and the American Whiskey Tax was resisted in rural areas where whiskey distilling was a cottage industry. Even though Hamilton and Congress tried to use tariffs to hold taxes down, the Whiskey distillers in western Pennsylvania and western Virginia were having none of it. Taxes were not being paid and tax collectors were being beaten and tarred and feathered.

The “Whiskey Rebellion” broke out in earnest in 1794 in Pennsylvania and Virginia. The government’s authority and prestige were at stake and this armed rebellion had to be put down, but without bloodshed if possible. President Washington personally took command, and along with General Henry “Light Horse Harry” Lee assembled the largest number of troops ever in one place up to that time. This show of overwhelming force intimidated the leaders of the rebellion and ended it without bloodshed.

Early American politicians had very differing views of government. Some believed it would and should remain agrarian. Others, including Hamilton, wanted to develop manufacturing and industry to compete with Europe. Hamilton wanted government assistance for new industry by manipulation of protective duties and control of raw materials cost. He also wanted increased immigration to provide workers for new industry. Congress wisely shelved these contentious proposals without debate.

Hamilton did join a group that wanted to develop an industrial area in New Jersey at the Great Falls of the Passaic River. They founded the town of Patterson, which was named after the New Jersey governor. The effort never succeeded, and many investors went bankrupt. The head of the group died in debtor’s prison.

George Washington and many other early Americans were against the formation of political parties because they felt they would be too divisive. However, politicians were already divided by differing philosophies of government and it was only logical that they would organize. Thomas Jefferson and his followers formed the Democratic-Republican Party, usually known as the Republican Party. They favored strong individual states with government based in rural areas, which would be protected by state militias. They opposed banks, cities, and big centralized government.

Alexander Hamilton and his followers were known as Federalists, and they favored a strong central government supported by a national army and navy. They wanted government to be involved in business, industry, banking, cities, and some social programs. Today we would call Hamilton a “big government” politician. Hamilton supporters saw themselves as citizens that faithfully followed the United States Constitution.

The two parties were united in a vision of a dynamic and growing nation but obviously had quite different ideas on achieving these goals. The parties engaged in bitter rhetoric that was often very personal. They built national coalitions and established partisan newspapers. The newspapers engaged in personal attacks, major exaggerations, and invented claims (lies).

The two-party system exposed a major weakness in national elections procedures because the winner of the most votes became president, and the second vote getter became vice president. This could lead to the two offices being occupied by members of opposing parties, which did happen with devastating results and led directly to the death of Hamilton.

The American government had relations with the great European powers, but these relations were complicated by the wars and economies of those big countries. When Britain and France went to war in 1793, the US decided to remain neutral. The US wanted to engage in trade with all, especially Britain which was the most important trade partner. The French ambassador was kicked out of the US because he was recruiting mercenaries and privateers in the country.

To avoid war, President Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to Britain to negotiate with the British. Hamilton wrote most of Jay’s instructions. The negotiations resulted in Jay’s Treaty which was immediately and viciously attacked by the Republicans. However, Hamilton mobilized support throughout the country and the treaty was ratified in 1795. The treaty settled many problems remaining from the Revolutionary War and assured peace and free trade with the British for ten years.

Hamilton resigned from his office on 1 December 1794 because of his wife’s miscarriage and resulting frail health. Before his departure, he made several proposals concerning taxes and national debt, which Congress included in a bill that was debated about a month later. Hamilton resumed his law practice in New York to be close to his family. Hamilton also remained in contact with President Washington who sought his advice on many issues. He and James Madison both contributed ideas for Washington’s farewell address.

The election of 1796 saw Hamilton take a significant and questionable role. He tried to manipulate the electoral vote to elect Thomas Pinckney president and relegate John Adams to vice president again. His plan failed miserably, and Adams was elected president. His archenemy, Thomas Jefferson, became vice president. Hamilton’s machinations did not gain him any friends.

In 1797 Alexander Hamilton became the first major American politician to be involved in a sexual affair that became public. In 1791 he began an affair with Maria Reynolds who was “separated” from her husband. Maria had lured Hamilton into the affair, but Hamilton was a willing participant. However, the whole affair was a scam and Maria’s husband, James Reynolds, soon began blackmailing Hamilton. He paid about 1,300 dollars but continued the affair until he finally realized that Maria was in on the scam too. He then ended the affair.

The story became public after Maria’s husband and an accomplice were arrested on unrelated charges. The affair then became known to other politicians who confronted Hamilton. He provided evidence to them that his misconduct did not involve the treasury. In the summer of 1797, the affair was publicized, exaggerated, and sensationalized by journalist James Callender. Hamilton asked James Monroe, and Congressmen Muhlenberg, and Venable to publicly confirm that he had not compromised his position as Secretary of the Treasury. Monroe refused to comment and never forgave him. Hamilton then published a booklet that he called the “Reynolds Pamphlet” in which he discussed the affair in indelicate detail for the time. Hamilton was ridiculed but not destroyed, and his wife eventually forgave him.

During the 1798-1800 Quasi-War with France, Washington was recalled to command the army and he insisted that President Adams appoint Hamilton to the rank of major general. Washington made Hamilton the army’s senior major general which caused Henry Knox to decline appointment to serve as Hamilton’s junior. He had been senior to Hamilton during the Revolutionary War.

No land war materialized during the Quasi-War, so Washington remained at Mount Vernon and Hamilton was de facto commander of the Army. He wanted to take Spain’s North American colonies and proposed taxes to finance such a military campaign. New controversial taxes were passed, but Hamilton’s war plans never reached fruition. Peace brought an end to the need for a mobilized army and President Adams fired Secretary of State Pickering and Secretary of War McHenry when he discovered they were more loyal to Hamilton than to him.

The election of 1800 became a quagmire of political intrigue. Hamilton was again trying to manipulate the vote to achieve his personal goals. He worked against the Democratic-Republican candidates, Thomas Jefferson, and Aaron Burr, but also opposed his party’s nominee, John Adams. Hamilton supported Adam’s running mate Charles C. Pinckney. Hamilton wrote a pamphlet that criticized Adams, which fell into Democratic-Republican hands, and they published it. This damaged Adams’ campaign and split the Federalist party, which assured a Democratic-Republican victory. It also destroyed Hamilton’s position among his party.

Portrait of Thomas Jefferson-Alexander Hamilton-Financial Genius — Thomas Jefferson

All of this resulted in an electoral vote tie of 73 votes for Jefferson and 73 for Burr, which meant the House of Representatives would select the winner. Hamilton actively campaigned against Burr even though he did not like Jefferson. He saw Jefferson as the lesser of two evils and claimed Burr was a “dangerous man” and a “mischievous enemy.” Sectional differences (North vs. South) were in play also. Jefferson was elected president and Burr became vice president. Jefferson did not trust nor like Burr and cut him out of his circle of advisors.

Jefferson would not support Burr for vice president in 1804 so Burr ran for New York Governor. Again, Hamilton opposed Burr and organized forces against him. They successfully defeated Burr, but a letter was made public that referred to several statements allegedly made by Hamilton that impugned Burr’s character and honesty. Burr viewed this as an attack on his honor and demanded a written apology from Hamilton. Hamilton claimed he did not remember making the statements so would not apologize and be viewed as a coward.

All efforts to reconcile the situation failed and a duel was arranged. Hamilton wrote that he would “throw away” his shot. Much has been written about this duel and how “honorable” Hamilton was, and I have read much of it. After studying several accounts, I have come to a different opinion.

Painting of Hamilton-Burr Duel-Alexander Hamilton-Financial genius — Painting of Hamilton-Burr Duel

The duel was at dawn on 11 July 1804 near Weehawken, New Jersey.

Some sources say that Hamilton provided the pistols and that they were heavier than normal dueling pistols. They also state that Hamilton had altered the pistols to have hair triggers. On the surface this does not appear to be especially important, but I believe this is evidence of skullduggery by Hamilton. First a heavier weapon would slightly slow the movement from a muzzle down position to the aiming position. From a muzzle up position, it would slightly speed the movement to lower it, which increases the possibility of passing the aiming point. Secondly, a hair trigger coupled with the increased weight would increase the possibility of a wild shot.

Nobody is sure of who fired first but it is known that Hamilton’s shot was over Burr’s head. If Hamilton fired first, he did not fire into the ground which was the protocol for throwing away a shot. I believe Hamilton fired first but his shot was wild because of the factors above. Burr then fired hitting Hamilton in the abdomen above the right hip. I do not believe Hamilton intended to throw away his shot. I think he became a victim of his own pistol changes which combined with the fact he was facing the sun (this position was stupidly selected by his seconds) resulted in the wild shot. I further believe that his claim to be planning to “throw away” his shot was a ruse to destroy Burr if he was killed. This part of his plan worked.

Burr’s shot was mortal, and Hamilton died the next day about 2 PM at a friend’s boarding house in Greenwich Village. He had suffered considerably and had been visited by family and friends. Gouverneur Morris gave the eulogy at Hamilton’s funeral, and he was buried in Trinity Churchyard Cemetery in Manhattan.

Hamilton’s widow, Elizabeth preserved his legacy by organizing his letter, papers, and other writings with the help of their son, John Church Hamilton. She also managed to get his biography published. Elizabeth wore a small package around her neck that contained pieces of a sonnet Alexander had written for her during their courtship.

The 11 July 1804 duel ended the life of one of the best financial minds in American history. His policies as Secretary of the Treasury significantly affected the US government and still influence it. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson both believed Hamilton was unprincipled and dangerously aristocratic. His reputation has been mostly negative until recent years and he is now correctly considered a visionary. Being such a strong advocate for his Federalist beliefs of a strong federal government had made him the prime target of his opponents.

The duel also destroyed the career of Aaron Burr who had lots of potential to positively contribute to the country. He had shown his capabilities in organization, and his tenure as President of the Senate was groundbreaking.

Alexander Hamilton has been honored in many ways. Many Coast Guard and Naval vessels have been named for him. The 1st Battalion, 5th Field Artillery Regiment is nicknamed “Hamilton’s Own.” It is the oldest unit in the Regular Army and the only one to have served in the Revolutionary War. Hamilton is portrayed on the ten-dollar bill and US postal stamps. His alma mater, Columbia University has several memorials to him. Hamilton College is named for him. There are numerous buildings named for him, and there are numerous statues of Hamilton in many cities. Americans obviously recognize Hamilton’s contributions to our country and know he was a patriot and hero.

September 14, 2021September 14, 2021

The XYZ Affair

The XYZ Affair was a 1797 diplomatic incident that occurred between a United States Peace delegation and the French government when French agents demanded a substantial bribe to arrange a meeting with the French Foreign Minister. The incident inflamed American public opinion and resulted in the undeclared and limited “Quasi-War” with France. The incident had a profound effect on early American partisan politics including the hotly contested presidential election of 1800. It also played a significant role in the adoption of the Alien and Sedition Acts.

After the start of the French Revolution in 1789, France and Britain were embroiled in nearly constant war until the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. France was in disarray and was having problems financing these wars. Since their alliance with America had been a major factor in the Revolutionary War victory, they expected the US to help in their war against Britain. However, President George Washington rightfully believed that America could not afford another war and declared US neutrality.

Another irritant to the French was the 1794 Jay Treaty that was concluded to stabilize the shaky peace with Britain. The French were outraged believing the treaty was anti-French. The French were correct since the treaty contained provisions such as the one that allowed the British to seize goods from American ships sailing to France if the British paid the US.

In 1796, in retaliation to the Jay Treaty, the French began seizing American ships trading with Britain. By the end of 1798, they had seized more than 300 American merchant ships. The French also refused to receive President Washington’s newly appointed US ambassador Charles C. Pinckney. Now the Americans were outraged.

Portrait of John Adams - XYZ Affair — John Adams

The new American President, John Adams, optimistically decided the situation could be solved by diplomacy with reasonable people working together to reach an accommodation. Adams had the right idea but also knew that the Revolutionary Government of France was completely corrupt. He selected Ambassador Pinckney, Elbridge Gerry, and John Marshall to negotiate with the French. All three envoys were accomplished American political figures. Their orders were to maintain American neutrality in the Franco-British wars, to reestablish commercial relations with France, and to avoid any commitment of financial support for France.

The Americans were all in France by late 1797 and were seeking an audience with the French Foreign Minister, Charles-Maurice Talleyrand. The Prime Minister, however, refused to meet with the Americans who were then forced to work through three intermediaries-Jean Conrad Hottinguer, Pierre Bellamy, and Lucien Hauteval. These intermediaries informed the Americans that certain conditions had to be met before negotiations could begin.

The conditions were: the Americans had to apologize for anti-French sentiment expressed in a 16 May Adams address to Congress, the US must make a large loan to France, must pay the claims made by American merchants for ships the French had seized, and had to pay Talleyrand 1,200,000 livres ($250,000.00). Such personal “payments” were common in French diplomacy. To make matters even worse, French victories in the ongoing war emboldened the Talleyrand government to begin threatening the American envoys.

Marshall wrote long dispatches on 22 October and 8 November explaining the situation to Secretary of State Timothy Pickering. Informal talks with the French continued during the winter of 1797-1798 with no progress. Efforts to begin serious negotiations without paying the bribes completely failed so on 24 April 1798 Marshall sailed for home, and Pinckney went to the south of France for personal reasons. Against advice, Gerry stayed in Paris in an effort to initiate negotiations. He failed and paid a high political cost for staying in France.

Back in the US, and before news of the bribery demands were known, Vice-President Thomas Jefferson believed the US had dealt with the French unfairly and he did not support Adams’ actions, particularly preparations for war. He also criticized the selection of the envoys. When Adams asked Congress to deal firmly with France and to fund a stronger military, his plans were strongly resisted by the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans.

The coded messages arrived on 4 March 1798 and the next day Adams announced to Congress that the diplomatic mission had failed. As more of the dispatches were deciphered, the Adams administration became outraged, but Adams would not immediately release the details for fear of endangering American diplomats.

On 19 March, Adams asked Congress to arm American ships, improve coastal defenses, and increase arms production. Jefferson still believed the administration was overreacting and using the incident to encourage war. He called Adams’ message to Congress “insane” and believed the wars in Europe would eventually solve all the problems.

Both parties in Congress wanted the dispatches released for their own partisan reasons and on 2 April passed a resolution for them to be published. Adams was happy to comply because he knew they would support his positions, and that the Americans were safely out of France. He replaced the names of the French agents with the letters X, Y, and Z. Obviously this is how the incident became known as the “X Y Z Affair.”

When the dispatches were released to the newspapers, Americans were enraged against France and John Adams became more popular. “Millions for defense but not one cent for tribute” became a popular Federalist slogan. The Federalists increased their majority in the House in 1798 which directly contributed to passing the “Alien & Sedition Acts.”

All this led to the undeclared “Quasi-War” with France. Although the US built up all military branches, the war was a naval conflict. This resulted in establishment of the US Department of the Navy, which gained valuable combat experience. The American military build-up and combat experience became positive factors in the US victory in the War of 1812, particularly in naval combat.

American war preparations caused Talleyrand to realize he had made a big tactical mistake and he wanted to restore normal relations. Although Congress approved renewed negotiations, the US Navy was successfully attacking French ships, particularly in the Caribbean Sea. The US also offered support to Haitian revolutionary Toussaint L’Ouverture (The “Father of Haiti.”)

Interestingly, in 1799 Congress passed the Logan Act, which has been in the news recently. It was passed in response to the visit of pacifist Quaker, George Logan, who negotiated with Talleyrand and announced Talleyrand’s “peaceful intentions.” The act criminalized unauthorized diplomatic negotiations but has never been enforced.

Official peace negotiations proceeded in France. Nepoleon had taken power and stabilized France. His main goal in the Americas was to re-obtain Louisiana from the Spanish, and Talleyrand, who was still Foreign Minister, wanted to end the hostilities with the US. The British were very happy with the American anti-French actions and tried to assist the US, but President Adams wanted to deescalate the situation. Adams’ position was not popular domestically, but both Adams and Talleyrand recognized that the situation was volatile and could easily escalate into full-scale war.

The negotiators negated the Revolutionary War 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France and drafted a new agreement known as the “Convention of 1800,” also known as the “Treaty of Mortefontaine,” which re-established peace. Unfortunately for John Adams, word of the agreement did not arrive in time to help him in the bitter 1800 presidential election. The new agreement did not address compensation for the seizure of American merchant ships, so Congress did not ratify a final version until 18 December 1801.

Portrait of Thomas Jefferson - X Y Z Affair — Thomas Jefferson

Vice President Thomas Jefferson had opposed most of President Adams’ decisions because he still had romantic memories of his early days in France. Even more importantly Jefferson wanted to be President. He reached this goal in the bitter election of 1800.

The XYZ Affair was the first big diplomatic crises the US faced and was handled in about the same way as such incidents are handled today-with confusion, hesitancy, and partisan politics. Somehow this method eventually results in a decision. The Convention of 1800 ended the US-French Alliance which was the only formal alliance of the United States. Wisely following Washington’s warning about foreign alliances, it would be nearly 150 years before the US entered into another such agreement.

September 1, 2021September 1, 2021

Edward Rutledge, Young Hero

Portrait of Edward Rutledge — Edward Rutledge

Edward Rutledge was a South Carolina lawyer and politician who was the youngest signer of the Declaration of Independence. He saw combat with the South Carolina Militia, was a prisoner of war, returned to Congress and was an author of the Articles of Confederation. Rutledge was active in South Carolina politics and served one term as governor before his death at the early age of 50. Edward Rutledge is not well known but was a founding father, patriot, and American hero.

Edward Rutledge was born into an aristocratic South Carolina family on 23 November 1749 in Charleston. He was the youngest of the seven children of John Rutledge and Sarah Hext. John Rutledge was a successful Charleston Physician who had emigrated from Ireland about 1735. Sarah Hext was “a lady of respectable family, and large fortune.” Her grandfather, Hugh, came to South Carolina from England about 1686. Her father, also named Hugh, left Sarah substantial lands inherited from the Fenwick family, two homes in Charleston, a 550-acre plantation at Stono, and 640 acres on St. Helen’s in Granville County.

We know little about Edward Rutledge’s early years, but he was tutored by David Smith from New Jersey. Reportedly, he was a mediocre student. Later he read law with his brother John, who was already a distinguished member of the Charleston bar.

When Edward was 20 years old, he traveled to England to study law at The Temple, an ancient institution for teaching law founded by the Knights Templar in 1185. Many famous South Carolinians had attended Temple including Edward’s uncle Andrew and his brothers John and Hugh.

In 1772 Edward was admitted to the English bar and he returned to Charleston where he began his law practice. Charles Cotesworth Pinckney was his law partner and their practice flourished. As their practice grew and they established a reputation, they became leading citizens of Charleston.

Portrait of Henrietta Middleton-Spouse Edward Rutledge — Henrietta Middleton

On 1 March 1774 Edward married Henrietta Middleton, who came from an aristocratic South Carolina family. She was the sister of Arthur Middleton who would also sign the Declaration of Independence. The couple had three children, one who died in infancy.

Henrietta’s wealthy father had extensive political connections and influence and he helped advance Edward’s career. Edward was elected to the South Carolina House of Representatives, and in 1775 he and his brother John were selected to serve on of the South Carolina delegation to the Continental Congress.

The Rutledge’s both favored independence according to John Adam’s autobiography. However, the South Carolina legislature instructed the delegation to oppose independence. They believed the time was not yet right, and that the British military would crush them if independence was declared too soon.

Following instructions, Edward Rutledge became one of the most ardent opposers of Richard Henry Lee’s June 1776 resolution for independence. When a trial vote was taken on 1 July, the entire South Carolina delegation voted “no.” The South Carolina Legislature than notified Rutledge to vote in favor of independence and the next day the delegation reversed their vote. This made the independence vote unanimous, at 12 to 0 with New York abstaining. Edward signed the Declaration of Independence in August, the youngest signer at 26 years old.

Even before the independence resolution was passed, Edward was selected to represent South Carolina on the committee to draft the first constitution, the Articles of Confederation. Again, he was a voice of opposition to the draft because he recognized its shortcomings. In a letter to John Jay, he wrote: If the proposed plan is adopted “nothing less than Ruin to some Colonies will be the Consequence…” and “I am resolved to vest the Congress with no more power than what is absolutely necessary.” The Confederation was debated passionately for months and finally completed and signed on 15 November 1777. Ratification was not achieved until 1781.

In September 1776 Edward, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin were selected to attend a meeting on Staten Island that had been requested by Lord Admiral Richard Howe. Nothing was accomplished because Howe had no power to change anything. In a letter to his good friend General George Washington, Edward reported the meeting was pleasant, but Howe had been directed to only “consult, advise & confer with gentlemen of the greatest influence in the Colonies about their complaints.”

In 1779, illness prevented Rutledge from continuing service in Congress and he returned to South Carolina. He then took a seat in the South Carolina General Assembly and was appointed to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel in the Charleston Battalion of Artillery. He served with this unit in the victory at Port Royal Island under the command of General William Moultrie.

Painting of Typical British Prison Ship-Edward Rutledge — Typical British Prison Ship

On 12 May 1780 Edward and fellow Declaration signers Thomas Heyward Jr. and Arthur Middleton were captured by the British during the siege of Charleston. They were held in a prison ship off the coast of St. Augustine for eleven months and were released during a prisoner exchange in July 1781.

After his release, Edward served in the General Assembly until 1798. He voted to ratify the U.S. Constitution during the South Carolina Constitutional Convention in 1790-1791. He was an active legislator known for his advocacy of confiscation of Loyalist property. During this period Rutledge’s wealth increased substantially. His law practice was flourishing, and he was making profitable investments in plantation property.

Portrait of Mary Shubrick-Spouse Edward Rutledge — Mary Shubrick

Henrietta Rutledge died on 22 April 1792. She had been in ill health for years. Henrietta was buried at Saint Philips Episcopal Church Cemetery in Charleston. Later in the year Edward married Mary Shubrick Eveleigh a young widow. Two of Mary’s sisters also married signers of the Declaration of Independence-one married Thomas Heyward, Jr. and one married Thomas Lynch, Jr.

Edward Rutledge opposed the Jay Treaty with Britain and believed the Federalist party’s policies favored the British. He was an elector in the 1796 presidential election and voted for Republican Thomas Jefferson and Federalist Thomas Pinckney. John Adams won the Presidency. Adams was not a fan of Rutledge or any South Carolinian. However, Rutledge approved of Adam’s defense policies towards France during the Quasi-War. Later, he believed the Republicans became too partial to France, and he cut off contact with Vice President Jefferson.

Rutledge served in the South Carolina senate for two years and was elected governor in1798. He died in Charleston on 23 January 1800 before serving his full term. He was given an impressive military funeral with many honors for his long service to the nation and state. He was buried in St. Philip’s Church Cemetery. In 1969 the South Carolina Daughters of the Revolution placed a marker at the entrance of the cemetery that honored Rutledge and Charles Pinckney. The church was designated a national historical landmark in 1974

Edward Rutledge was recognized by his peers as intelligent, generous and an eloquent orator. As noted above John Adams did not have much use for many southerners, especially South Carolinians, and particularly Edward Rutledge. Adams considered him to be “a peacock who wasted time debating upon points of little consequence.” and “a perfect Bob-O-Lincoln, a swallow, a sparrow…jejune, inane and puerile.” Adams had an opinion on everyone and did not mince words.

On the other hand, Benjamin Rush of Pennsylvania thought Rutledge was a sensible young lawyer and useful in Congress, but he also noted his “great volubility in speaking.” Patrick Henry of Virginia rated Rutledge as the greatest orator among a group that included Samuel Adams, John Jay, and Thomas Jefferson.

Edward Rutledge was very young compared to other delegates when he first entered national politics so there probably were some that considered him to be too young for his position. No matter what the opinions of others, Edward Rutledge debated and signed the Declaration of Independence, helped author the Articles of Confederation, and was selected for the delegation that met with Lord Howe. He was also a combat officer, a state politician, and a state governor. Not bad for a person of any age. He helped establish and develop the United States of America. Edward Rutledge was a patriot and an American hero.

August 15, 2021August 15, 2021

The Conway Cabal – 1777

Portrait George Washington by R. Peale-Conway Cabal — General George Washington by R. Peale

The Conway Cabal was a 1777 clandestine military-political plot to relieve General George Washington of his position of command-in-Chief of the American Continental forces. It ended up accomplishing nothing and historian’s opinions of the importance of the plot range from nonevent to dire. My opinion is that the plot was loosely organized but was a true conspiracy. It was an exercise in professional and personal jealously and inflated self-importance that nearly got out of hand. If it had succeeded our Revolution may have failed. It also revealed that George Washington could be avenging and very human in reaction to a personal threat. He was not always calm, reasonable, and stoic as we usually view him.

The Oxford Dictionary defines cabal as “a secret political clique or faction, a junta.” The man whose name was given to this incident was Thomas Conway. He was from an Irish Catholic family that fled to France to escape English religious oppression when he was a child. He served for years in the French military and eventually served under the command of Prussian Frederick the Great. He migrated to America to “increase my fortune.”

Thomas Conway-Conway Cabal — Thomas Conway

Conway was 42 years old when he first met George Washington, and he made a good first impression. Washington found him to be a “man of candor…infinitely better qualified to serve us than many who have been promoted…” The Marquis de Lafayette, a Washington aide, praised Conway lavishly. Congress awarded Conway the rank of brigadier general in the Continental Army on 13 May 1777.

By the fall of 1777 Washington had suffered a series of military setbacks. The British had captured the capital city, Philadelphia forcing Congress to relocate to York, Pennsylvania. He had also been defeated at Brandywine and Germantown. These losses were causing some in the army and many in Congress to question Washington’s leadership.

Conway reportedly fought well at Brandywine and Germantown. Dr. Benjamin Rush, army surgeon, said that Conway was “the idol of the whole army.” However, according to Washington aide, Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens, Washington was not impressed with Conway’s performance at Germantown. Washington had considered court martialing him because he was “a considerable time separated from his brigade.” In addition, Conway lectured others on what Frederick the Great would have done had he been in the “untutored American’s” place. He was arrogant with an I-told-you-so attitude and appearance when dealing with others.

MG Horatio Gates - Conway Cabal — MG Horatio Gates

The Washington-Conway relationship was festering under the surface like an untreated wound when another general, Horatio Gates, was added to the mix. Major General Gates was on top of the world because in October 1777 his command had defeated and captured British General John Burgoyne’s entire army at Saratoga. This was the greatest victory by American arms up to that time, and the victory helped encourage France to ally with America. Gates had previously coveted Washington’s position and had in fact lobbied Congress for the command.

Gates and Washington were well acquainted. Gates was five years older than Washington and had more military experience having been a British officer before migrating from England only four years before the Revolution. Both had served during the French and Indian War under General Edward Braddock. They had been with Braddock when he was killed at Fort Duquesne in 1755. Gates was wounded and Washington was nearly killed in that battle.

Gates’ victory magnified Washington’s failures and some army officers and members of Congress were secretly intensifying their questioning of Washington’s ability to command. When Washington accepted his commission from Congress in 1775, he accepted with these modest words: with “a conviction of my own incapacity and inexperience.” After his early defeats he pointed out that he had never “assumed the character of a military genius.” Among those that wholeheartedly agreed with Washington’s modest statements were John Adams, Samuel Adams, and James Lovell of Massachusetts; Richard Henry Lee of Virginia; Dr. Benjamin Rush, surgeon of the army; and particularly Major General Thomas Mifflin, the disgruntled former Washington aide and Quartermaster of the Continental Army. Rush and Lovell wrote gushing letters to Gates stating their wish that he was in command of the Army.

After Saratoga Gates was flooded with congratulatory letters including ones from Washington and Lafayette. However, Washington knew that Gates was taking more credit than he deserved. Gates had been in command less than eight weeks before the Burgoyne surrender. General Philip Schuyler had developed most of the battle plan, and all the fighting had been done by Benedict Arnold and Daniel Morgan. This information was minimized in Gates’ after-action reports, which emphasized and exaggerated his own performance.

Henry Laurens-President of Congress Conway Cabal — Henry Laurens

Secretly criticizing Washington and his leadership while praising a Washington subordinate was a recipe for weakening military unity, which would eventually degrade combat effectiveness. In this case the situation soon became known to Washington in an indirect way. The president of the Congress, Henry Laurens, wrote his son John about the intrigues. However, John was an aide on Washington’s staff and being a loyal subordinate, passed the information to his commander.

Henry Laurens had indicated that one unnamed individual whose “duplicity and criminal partialities” had “laid the foundation of our present deplorable state” was someone Washington trusted. Washington was shocked and angered, and understandably became a little paranoid wondering about the identity of false friends. Soon afterward an anonymous letter actually calling for Washington to be replaced was passed to the general who recognized the handwriting of Dr. Benjamin Rush.

Marquis-De-Lafayette - Conway Cabal — Marquis-De-Lafayette

Lafayette who was becoming very close to General Washington tried to console him by calling his detractors “stupid men” who knew nothing about war. He made his allegiance to Washington clear writing he would sustain it “by my sword.” Washington was touched by Lafayette’s words and wrote back “It is much to be lamented that things are not now as they formerly were, but we must not, in so great a contest, expect to meet with nothing but Sun shine.”

Philosophical words soon ended. The plot erupted when General Gates’ aide Brigadier General James Wilkinson bragged to an aide of Major General William Alexander, Lord Stirling, about a letter Gates had received from General Conway. Stirling was irate over remarks Conway had made to Congress accusing him of drunken ineptitude, so he passed the information to Washington as an example of “wicked duplicity of conduct.”

The very next day Conway received a heated and direct letter from Washington: “Sir: A letter which I receivd last Night, contained the following paragraph. In a letter from Genl. Conway to Genl. Gates he says, ‘Heaven has been determined to save your Country; or a weak General and bad councellors would have ruind it.’ I am Sir Yr. Hble Servt.”

Conway’s replies were models of denial, why me? and egotism. First, he admitted he had made some critical remarks about the army but denied using the expression “weak general.” He said he was willing to have Washington see the original letter and then kissed up to Washington by praising him. Even then he could not resist stating that Washington had been influenced by men “not equal to you.” Conway whined that others could express their opinions, but not him, which was “odious and tyrannical,” but that Washington was probably “innocent” of such thoughts. He ended with an unbelievable insult to a superior officer. He referred to himself as a veteran sailor of thirty years and Washington as a new admiral; “An old sailor knows more of a ship than admirals who have never been to sea.”

Conway than escalated the dispute, which Washington wanted to remain private, by offering his resignation to Congress and referring to his dispute with Washington. General Washington responded with “I shall not object to your departure, since it is your inclination.” He obviously agreed with Conway’s statement that he could serve “more effectively in another part of the world.”

Congress in an epic example of stupidity and politics, did not accept Conway’s resignation, but promoted him to major general. They then appointed him to be Washington’s new inspector general. They also set up a Board of War to oversee Washington with Horatio Gates in charge. Obviously, Washington’s enemies in Congress wanted to put him in his place hoping he would resign. They underestimated General Washington because he did not take it laying down.

Richard Henry Lee - Conway Cabal — Richard Henry Lee

Washington responded to the news of Conway’s promotion by firing a broadside at Richard Henry Lee. He called the actions by Congress “as unfortunate a measure as was ever adopted” for the morale of his officers. Conway’s “importance in this army exists more in his imagination than in reality: For it is a maxim with him, to leave no service of his own untold.” He added a veiled threat to resign stating: “I have undergone more than most Men are aware of, to harmonize so many discordant parts; but it will be impossible for me to be of any further service, if such insuperable difficulties are thrown in my way.”

Lee responded with pablum admitting that the promotion might not have been a good idea, but that it might not even happen. This was a dodge of all the issues by Lee because Conway soon appeared at Washington’s Valley Forge Headquarters as inspector general. Conway claimed he never asked for the position and if it displeased the general, “I am very ready to return to France where I have pressing business.” Washington wrote a pro forma welcome to Conway, but Conway complained to Congress about “coldness” like he had never before experienced. Washington responded to Congress that he could not show friendship to a man “I deem my enemy.”

Washington next wrote to the president of Congress that “a malignant faction had been for some time forming to my prejudice…” He believed he could not adequately defend himself without revealing military secrets and at this lowest point in his career could offer nothing but good intentions. He stated that he had always tried to do his best but had “often” made mistakes. Aide Lieutenant Colonel Tench Tilghman noted, “I have never seen any stroke of ill fortune affect the General in the manner that this dirty underhand dealing has done.”

Thomas Mifflin learned about the weak general reference and warned Gates that Washington had an extract of the Conway letter. He also expressed his agreement with Conway. Gates realized he was in trouble and wrote Washington to defend himself. His letter was quite unbelievable. He told Washington he was shocked because his private letters had been stolen by an unknown person, and asked Washington to help him identify the thief he called “the wretch.” Washington noted the plural term “letters” which suggested a relationship between Gates and Conway and wondered what else had been going on. Gates obviously made no apology and said he would also ask Congress to help identify the thief. Gates had been caught with his hand in the cookie jar and was attempting to confuse the facts.

The Gates letter only made Washington more angry. He and Gates certainly never were close because Gates had the nasty habit of sending after-action reports to Congress bypassing his commander. Washington responded to Gates in a series of letters that coldly reflected his rage over the situation. He first said he regretted that Gates had made it necessary to involve Congress. He identified “the wretch” as Gates’ own aide, Wilkinson who “fell in with Lord Stirling.” He repeated verbatim the weak general passage for Gates and revealed he had kept the letter secret from his staff except for Lafayette. Washington then engaged in some subterfuge of his own by claiming he had assumed Gates had ordered Wilkinson to make the letter known to him to warn him about a secret enemy.

Gates claimed the letter was a “wicked forgery” and the original was “harmless.” Gates praised Conway as “a firm and constant friend of America.” Washington countered that he could not reconcile Gates’ letters and even parts of the same letter with each other. He further asserted that Gates should produce the original letter to remove any doubts about its content. He then ridiculed the “friend of America” statement by noting that the country had not fully benefited from Conway’s experience because of his vanity, meanness, and criticism of others.

Now the situation was approaching resolution. Gates wrote Washington falsely denying he had any connection with Conway and making a guarded and toady apology. He implored Washington to not “spend another moment upon this subject.” Washington responded that he accepted the apology and was willing to close the conflict.

Congress contained many Washington detractors, and they had relished the conflict within Washington’s ranks. However, most military officers were very loyal to Washington. Nine generals officially protested Conway’s promotion and 47 colonels protested Wilkinson’s promotion over them. The continental officers were already furious because Congress was balking on their promise of half-pay for life for them.

Encouraged by Washington, his military supporters were livid about what had happened and reacted with rage. Colonel Daniel Morgan physically challenged Richard Peters, secretary of the Board of War, who whined about the confrontation. An aide to Major General Nathanael Greene suggested “a few Ozs. Of Gun-powder diffused thro proper channels will answer a good purpose.” John Laurens suggested Washington duel Conway. He believed Conway would not have dared oppose Washington if he had believed Washington would resort to physical retaliation.

Washington was said to be amused that Thomas Mifflin was resorting to “quick steps” to avoid General John Cadwalder, whose Welsh blood was boiling. Mifflin publicly claimed Washington was the best friend he ever had which was met with “hoots.”

Wilkinson tried to point the finger at another aide, but after Washington showed Wilkinson portions of Gates’ letters that demeaned him, Wilkinson turned on Gates. He said he would assert his honor “at the point of my sword.” A duel with Gates was arranged, but at the dueling ground Gates asked for a private conversation with Wilkinson. Gates burst into tears during the meeting and Wilkinson relented.

General John Cadwalder - Conway Cabal — General John Cadwalder

General Conway was not so fortunate. He and General Cadwalder met on the field of honor and Conway was wounded by a ball in the jaw that exited from the back of his neck. Cadwalder proudly stated that “I have stopped the damned rascals lying tongue at any rate.”

Conway assumed his wound was fatal and wrote a note to Washington: “My career will soon be over…Therefore, justice and truth prompt me to declare my last sentiments: You are in my eyes the great and good man. May you long enjoy the love, veneration, and esteem of these States whose liberties you have asserted by your virtues.” Washington did not respond. Conway recovered from his wound and lived a long active life in France.

Historians have argued about the Conway Cabal ever since it happened. There are as many opinions about how serious it was as there are historians. Some historians, like most of us, believe what agrees with their own opinions and prejudices and cherry pick the facts. That is particularly true with incidents like the Conway Cabal where it is necessary to rely on the participant’s words because there are few concrete facts or results. Often you are relying on those trying to make themselves look good and/or covering their tracks.

When the incident ended, Washington claimed he did not know if any in Congress were involved and that he had been assured that none were involved. In later life, however, Washington wrote: “The attempt was made by a party in Congress to supplant me.” Also, about a month after he and Gates buried the hatchet, Washington wrote Patrick Henry indicating that he had “undeniable facts” that three men outside Congress were guilty: Generals Gates, Mifflin, and Conway. Lafayette in his memoirs accused the two Lees of Virginia, the two Adams of Massachusetts and General Mifflin. He dismissed Conway as “a lost Child.”

Like many others I believe that Richard Henry Lee was involved although I have no concrete evidence. However, his lukewarm and condescending reply to Washington’s letter makes me suspect him. Lee was a fellow Virginian so I would expect him to be much more supportive. Also, Lee’s circle of close friends included most of the anti-Washington politicians, and other military officers who may have secretly coveted Washington’s position and been actively lobbying for it.

I do feel strongly that John Adams was involved. From what I can determine John Adams did not like most southerners and had little respect for the military. Well before the cabal, Adams had written to his wife the following: “I am wearied to Death with the Wrangles between military officers, high and low. They Quarrell like Cats and Dogs. They worry one another like Mastiffs. Scrambling for Rank and Pay like Apes for Nutts.”

John Adams was also a close friend of Dr. Rush and responded to Rush’s letter with the following statement: “I am sick of Fabian systems in all quarters.” Fabian is not a common term today but is defined as: cautious and dilatory. Adams was referring to what he viewed as Washington’s tactics. An example of a politician speaking of something that he knows nothing about.

Adams had nominated Washington for command of the army, and Washington had been the favorite of most delegates. I believe Adams made a political decision to go with the majority but was really against Washington and was actively looking for a way to replace him. John Adams was one of our greatest patriots, but he was also extremely ambitious and often caustic. Politics was a dirty business even then. A nation was being birthed by very strong, competitive, and ambitious men. If you study the first 50 years of our national politics, you will find not much has changed.

No matter the identity of all the plotters involved in the cabal, it seems clear that it had the potential to replace Washington. That would have greatly changed the history of America. I believe without Washington as commander of the Continental forces, the Revolutionary War would have been lost. Even if the War were won, Washington would not have been our first president. He held the army together and led it to victory. As president he held the country together and stabilized the government. I don’t believe any of the other founders could have done that job. Some men are born for great purposes despite personal weaknesses and prejudices. Washington fulfilled his destiny, and we are free because he did. We should all try to emulate the best traits of those who have gone before us to continue to “form a more perfect union.” We absolutely must continuously strengthen and nurture our great Republic.

August 1, 2021August 1, 2021

Carter Braxton, Hesitant Hero

Portrait of Carter Braxton — Carter Braxton

Carter Braxton was a signer of the Declaration of Independence who had initially opposed it because he felt it was premature. He was a very wealthy merchant, planter, and Virginia politician, who like Robert Morris, contributed great sums to the Revolutionary cause. His generosity coupled with destruction of much of his property by the British, and later poor financial decisions resulted in the loss of much of his wealth. Braxton was hesitant but became a Revolutionary that was committed to the “Glorious Cause.” He was a patriot and an American hero.

Carter was born on 10 September 1736 at Newington Plantation in King and Queen County, Virginia. He was the son of George Braxton, Jr. And Mary Carter. Mary died shortly after Carter’s birth. She was the youngest daughter of Robert “King” Carter who was probably the wealthiest man and largest landowner in Virginia. His paternal grandfather, George Braxton, Sr. was one of the largest landowners in Virginia’s Northern Neck. George Sr. Was also a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses.

Carter Braxton’s father died in 1749 when Carter was 13 years old. He and his brother, George, became wards of John Robinson, Jr. And Humphrey Hill. George was the oldest son, so he inherited Newington and lands in King and Queen and Essex counties.

The Braxton boys grew up in the lap of luxury. Both were educated at the prestigious College of William and Mary. Carter graduated in 1755 and married Judith Robinson, a wealthy heiress. The couple lived at Elsing Green Plantation (still a working farm) in King William County. Judith died two years later during childbirth leaving Carter with two young daughters, Mary, and Judith.

After Judith’s death Carter traveled to England. He returned to the Colonies in 1760 and sold Elsing Green Plantation. On 15 May 1760 he married Elizabeth Corbin the eldest daughter of Richard Corbin, Deputy Receiver General for his Majesty’s Revenues in Virginia. Elizabeth brought a dowry of 1,000 pounds sterling. Although I could not find a firm number, the couple had at least 16 children.

Once home and remarried, Carter Braxton turned his attention to business and bought a small schooner for trade in the West Indies and the colonies. This was the first of an eventual large merchant fleet he would build. Through trade he developed working and personal relationships with Bayard & Son of New York and Willing & Morris (Robert Morris) of Philadelphia and others.

Following family tradition, Carter also began a political career by representing King William County in the Virginia House of Burgesses beginning in 1761. Although Carter Braxton remained quite wealthy, he suffered a financial setback in October of 1761 when his brother George died. George left an insolvent estate which resulted in the loss of Newington Plantation.

Carter Braxton and his family were closely associated politically and personally with John Robinson, Speaker of the House of Burgesses, and Colony Treasurer. When Robinson died in 1766 a major financial scandal (John Robinson Estate Scandal) became public. Robinson had used paper script that he was supposed to destroy and tax revenues to make interest free loans to friends and supporters, and to pay his own debts. Most of the aristocratic people lived well beyond their means. It turned out that the Braxtons had been among the largest recipients of these loans and had profited considerably. Little money was ever recovered, largely because most of the investigators had been recipients of the illicit loans.

In addition to his duties as a burgess, Carter served as sheriff of King William County (a lucrative position), colonel of the county’s militia, and vestryman of St. John’s Church which was close to his new home of Chericoke Plantation.

Braxton was considered to be politically moderate or conservative. He supported official protests against new British punitive taxes and other acts of Parliament but did not support boycotts or protests like the Boston Tea Party. However, in 1774 Braxton became the King William County delegate to the Fourth Virginia Association which authorized local committees of safety and volunteer militia units in reaction to British efforts to tighten their rule.

When Virginia’s Colonial Governor Lord Dunmore seized Virginia’s gunpowder and other ordnance, Braxton helped negotiate a compromise between Patrick Henry and the Crown’s representative, Richard Corbin (his father-in-law). This compromise averted a serious military confrontation between the British and Virginia Militia.

Braxton gradually became more involved in revolutionary politics so when Peyton Randolph died in Philadelphia in October 1775 Braxton was selected to replace him in the Continental Congress. Braxton only served until August 1776 when Virginia reduced the size of their delegation. He signed the Declaration of Independence although previously in the Committee of the Whole he opposed it as premature. He also earned criticism from hardline revolutionaries for a politically conservative pamphlet, “Address to the Convention,” he published in response to the proposals of firebrand John Adams in “Thoughts on Government.”

After leaving Philadelphia, Braxton returned to the Virginia House of Burgesses. He was not reelected so he missed the 1778 sessions. Chericoke Plantation burned down shortly before Christmas 1776, forcing the Braxton family to move to Grove House near West Point, Virginia

Robert Morris-Carter Braxton — Robert Morris

During the War for Independence Braxton, like Robert Morris, expended much of his fortune to support the war effort. He funded shipping and privateering (losing about half of his 14 ships). He, Morris, and Benjamin Harrison sold American products to raise funds for weapons, other ordnance, food, and clothing. In 1777 one of his privateers unfortunately seized a neutral Portuguese vessel which earned him congressional rebukes, and considerable legal costs. In addition, the British destroyed some of his plantations. Braxton had “pledged” his “fortune” and actually paid the price.

Braxton’s poor agricultural business practices, indebtedness incurred after the deaths of his father and brother, and expenditures during the war resulted in financial problems. Creditors began to hound him, and he sued Robert Morris for unpaid loans. He did not recover any funds from Morris who was forced into bankruptcy and served time in Debtor’s Prison.

The financial problems resulted in the sale of one Braxton plantation in 1785, and a move to a smaller residence in Richmond. He paid for the new home with depreciated paper currency which also allowed him to repay the Robinson estate loan.

Obviously, Braxton had suffered significant financial setbacks, but he was still a very wealthy man. At the end of the war, he owned at least 12,000 acres. In 1791 he purchased Strawberry Hill near Richmond for his wife. Six years after the war he owned 8,500 acres which still made him one of the 100 largest landowners in Virginia. At his death, he owned 3,900 acres.

Carter Braxton died on 10 October 1797 at his home in Richmond. He had suffered at least two strokes in his final years. Braxton’s political service had spanned 36 years. The House of Burgesses, 1761-1771 and 1775-1776; Continental Congress 1776; Virginia House of Delegates ,1776-1783, 1785-1786; and Virginia Council of State 1786-1791 and 1794 until his death. During his career he had several feuds with those he disagreed with, including John Adams, the Lee family and Patrick Henry.

Photo Chericoke Plantation-Carter Braxton — Chericoke Plantation

It is believed that Carter was buried at Chericoke, which is still owned by the Braxton family. Chericoke had been rebuilt by Braxton after it burned in 1776 and was given to his son George on his marriage to Mary Walker Carter (daughter of Charles Carter of Shirley) in 1781. Possession of Chericoke survived despite the persistent legal attacks by creditors. Nearby Elsing Green is now open to tourists.

In 1910 Braxton family graves were moved to Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, but Carter Braxton’s remains could not be located. A monument was erected at the cemetery for him anyway. Braxton County (now West Virginia) was named for him, and a World War II Liberty Ship carried his name.

Carter Braxton was very wealthy and enjoyed all the benefits of his wealth and station in life. Since he was a member of the privileged aristocratic planter class who had much to lose, he was a hesitant revolutionary. He served in the Continental Congress for a brief time, but it was long enough for him to take part in the debate on independence and to sign the Declaration of Independence. He helped finance the war and much of his property was destroyed by the British. Braxton paid a high financial price for liberty and was a patriot and American hero.

July 15, 2021July 15, 2021

Society of the Cincinnati

The Society of the Cincinnati is a fraternal society with 13 constituent societies in the United States and one in France. It is the oldest patriotic hereditary society in America. It was founded in 1783 by American and French military officers to perpetuate the principles of the American Revolution and to preserve the fraternity between Continental officers. Now in its third century, the Society promotes public interest in the Revolution through its library, museum, publications, and public patriotic activities.

Like many Americans I had heard of the Society of the Cincinnati but knew absolutely nothing about it. I actually thought it had something to do with the Ohio city. Research for this article was a real eye opener for me. The Society has an interesting history, has endured for 238 years, is a bastion of patriotism, and its past and present membership includes many giants of American history.

The Society of the Cincinnati is named after Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus who left his farm to accept a term as Roman Consul and served as “Magister Populi.” He became the legal dictator of Rome to meet a war emergency, but when the war was won, he willingly chose to relinquish power and returned to his farm. The Cincinnatus story was well known in eighteenth century America. The original concept of public service in America was based on Cincinnatus – that men would leave their careers to serve for a brief time, and then return to their careers. The founders did not envision career politicians.

MG Henry Knox-Society of the Cincinnati — MG Henry Knox-

Henry Knox, who became the distinguished commander of Washington’s artillery, originally proposed a fraternal organization of Continental officers in 1775 when the Revolutionary War had just started. He returned to his idea in 1783 when the War had been won and the army was preparing to disband. The War had lasted eight long years and tens of thousands of men and several thousand commissioned officers had served in the Continental forces.

Most Continental officers were young and had risked their lives and sacrificed their private lives to secure independence for the country. They had fought together, and many had died. They had formed the intense personal bonds that are developed during shared combat, and they correctly believed these emotional bonds would last a lifetime. They were proud of their service and that they and their French allies had defeated one of the greatest powers of the eighteenth century. Their bravery and sacrifice had made it possible to establish the first great republic since the fall of the Roman Republic nearly two thousand years before.

The Continental veterans would, however, take home little more than their honor and pride. Congress had promised to pay them half-wages for life, but Congress had not even adequately supplied the military during the war. Most had not received any pay for many months if ever, and they had little confidence in Congress. They were concerned that having won the war, Congress would lose the peace. They were going home to face the problems of once again supporting their families, but with no pay or other help from the nation that had been established by their sacrifices.

The military was the only truly “national” organization in America, and its disbanding would weaken the fledgling government by reducing this binding force. Peace often results in “forgetting” the sacrifices of the conflict. Major General Knox recognized all the problems and wanted to do something positive to improve the situation.

Major General Knox drafted the society’s founding charter (known as the “Institution”) in April 1783 and discussed it with several other officers including his aide Captain Samuel Shaw, Major General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, and Brigadier General Jedediah Huntington. These officers supported the concept, and proposed the organization be named the Society of the Cincinnati. The Institution was formally adopted on 13 May 1783 and signed in June. Copies were sent to the Continental Line of each state to encourage officers to organize state societies.

The Institution outlines the purposes of the organization. I am highlighting the four most important.

The first was to perpetuate the memory of the War for Independence. They realized Americans had to remain vigilant to defend and preserve the liberties, which had been won by the sacrifices made during the War. The founding members were keenly aware that the road ahead would not be easy. The early nation was weak and not completely united, and they knew that freedom could still be lost. Fortunately, the country gained strength and stability. Keeping alive the memory of the War for Independence remains the Society’s most important public purpose.

The second purpose was to maintain the fraternal bonds formed during the War by giving officers a reason to gather in their home states and to have a national meeting every three years. Later hereditary successors had not shared the experiences of the “bloody conflict” but maintained close relationships by remembering the sacrifices of their forefathers and by association with older members.

The third purpose was charitable (“benevolent” in the language of the eighteenth century). Fraternal attachment required each member to demonstrate “brotherly kindness in all things” including financial support to members in distress and to their widows and orphans in times of need. Despite not being paid themselves, each officer donated one month’s pay to establish this fund which was to be managed by the state societies.

The fourth, but unstated purpose was to advocate for those who had served to secure arrears in pay and the half pay for life that had been promised. By disbanding without securing those benefits showed their faith in eventual justice and acknowledged their belief in the subordination of the military to civilian rule. Most revolutions end up with overt military rule or military controlled rule.

The Society of the Cincinnati founders did not want to merely establish an organization of veteran officers. Instead, they wanted to establish an organization of men distinguished by honorable service in a cause that was honorable. Honor, as exhibited by their revered leader, General George Washington was especially important to the founders of the Society. Honor should still be the most important personal trait that all men should aspire to.

Early America did come close to a military coup because of the unresolved pay issues. During the winter and spring of 1783, the unresolved problem of pay had driven enlisted men to the verge of mutiny. Some officers began to consider how the army could be used to compel congress to be just.

In March dissident officers led by Major John Armstrong, Jr, an aide of Major General Horatio Gates, published placards charging that congress would allow veterans to “grow old in poverty, wretchedness and contempt.” They called a mass meeting to be held on 15 March and hundreds of officers attended. To their surprise, General Washington also appeared and made an impassioned speech.

Portrait of General George Washington - Society of the Cincinnati — Portrait of General George Washington

Washington advised them to be patient, and to resist anyone “who wickedly attempts to open the floodgates of civil discord and deluge our rising empire in blood.” This is when Washington pulled a new pair of reading glasses from his pocket to read a letter. He said, “Gentlemen, you will permit me to put on my spectacles, for I have not only grown gray but almost blind in the service to my country.” This touched them all and ended any possibility of a military coup.

General Washington had no part in organizing the Society of the Cincinnati but agreed to serve as its first president general. He served in this position until his death in 1799. On 19 June 1783. Major General Knox was elected secretary general and Major General Alexander McDougall was elected treasurer general. Other offices were left vacant until the Society’s first general meeting scheduled to be held in 1784.

The concept of the Society was widely accepted by Continental officers and all thirteen state societies were organized within five months. The Institution defined broad parameters, but the state societies were given a great deal of autonomy. This was intentional and necessary because the country was large, and communications were slow. This Society was one of the first American institutions to be organized nationally.

Originally, Society membership was limited to officers who had served at least three years in the Continental Army or Navy or had served until the end of the War. French army and navy officers who had served were also included. Officers of the Continental Line who had died during the War could be recorded as members, and their membership would be conveyed to their eldest male heir. Officers of Colonial Militias and Minutemen were not entitled to membership. Within 12 months, 2,150 of the about 5,500 eligible officers had joined the Society.

The French Society was also organized early. French officers that had served in our Revolution were enthusiastic about being honored with Society membership. The French obtained the king’s permission and patronage to organize and held their first meeting in January 1784. From the start, the French Society had a mission to perpetuate the trans-Atlantic fraternity that had built up during the War. They wanted to promote understanding and friendship between France and the United States. This continues to this day as a major purpose of the French Society.

Major General Knox had a provision in the Institution calling for an “Order” (medal) by which “members shall be known and distinguished.” He envisioned a large and complex gold medal to be worn suspended from a neck ribbon. Major Pierre L’Enfant (Continental Army engineer and future designer of Washington DC) persuaded Knox that a badge worn on the lapel would be more appropriate and more practical.

L’Enfant designed an elegant badge consisting of a gold eagle with its wings spread bearing a cartouche on its breast containing an image of Cincinnatus and the Society’s Latin motto (He gave all to serve the republic). Informally known as the “Eagle” it is the most widely recognized symbol of the Society and is highly prized by members. L’Enfant traveled to France in 1784 to have the first group of Eagles made, and to assist in organizing the French Society.

King Louis XVI allowed his officers to wear the Society Eagle. Up until that time they could not wear any foreign medals or decorations.

Washington's Diamond Eagle Badge-Society of the Cincinnati — Washington and his Diamond Eagle Badge

A diamond encrusted Eagle was given to General Washington by Admiral Comte d’Estaing on 11 May 1784 on behalf of the officers of the French Navy. Upon Wahington’s death in 1799, his family awarded this badge to the next Society President General, Alexander Hamilton. This Eagle has been transferred to each new president ever since. Washington actually had three diamond Eagles and one was presented to Marquis de Lafayette during his grand farewell tour of the United States in 1824. It remained in his family’s possession until 2007 when it was auctioned for 5.3 million US dollars by Lafayette’s great-great granddaughter. It is now displayed in Lafayette’s bedroom at his former home, Chateau La Grange.

News of the formation of the Society was not greeted with overwhelming enthusiasm. The major belief of many was that the Society was an attempt to establish an elite hereditary nobility–the very thing that the Revolutionary War was waged to eliminate. The critics included many well-known and respected Americans, including Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin.

The debate became very public and even spread to France. Most of the critics concentrated on the charge that the Society was establishing a new nobility that would have too much influence and power. Some feared that they would have the power to elect whoever they favored and consequently control the government which could extend the Society’s control for generations. There was also a fear that the Society could seize power and re-establish a monarchy in America.

George Washington was unaware of the particulars of the charter when he agreed to serve as president general of the Society, and he was having second thoughts. However, L’Enfant returned with the completed Eagles and news of the formation of the French chapter. This made it difficult to abolish the Society. Instead, Washington announced at the first meeting that if the clauses about heredity were not abandoned, he would resign. His demand was accepted, and a new Institution was introduced to eliminate hereditary membership. It was adopted by most of the state societies and the French society.

Once the public furor died down and following the death of Washington, the new charter was rescinded and the original was reintroduced, including the clauses about heredity. The French chapter never reintroduced the document. The last French members were approved on 3 February 1792, shortly before the monarchy was eliminated during their revolution. Many French Society members were killed during the “reign of terror” that followed.

Alexander Hamilton became the second president general of the Society, and the Society began a decade of growth and activity. The Society was well represented in government and the western expansion. However, the Society took no political positions and has remained non-partisan to this day.

Marquis De Lafayette-Society of the Cincinnati — Marquis De Lafayette

The Society suffered a general decline during the early nineteenth century but was temporarily reinvigorated during the 1824-1825 Lafayette farewell tour of the United States and by the fiftieth anniversary of American independence in 1826. The Society took advantage of those commemorations to renew the campaign for the half-pay that Congress had promised Continental officers. Their 45-year-campaign finally paid off in 1828 when Congress granted each surviving officer full pay for the remainder of their lives. By the end of the year only about 850 former officers were collecting the pay. Many had died during the 45 years so Congress got off cheap.

Society membership in 1828 had dwindled to less than three hundred and most were hereditary members. State Societies were beginning to dwindle. By 1844, most of the Revolutionary generation had died, but a 92-year-old veteran of the New York Continental Line (William Popham) was elected president general of the Society. He was the last revolutionary veteran to serve in that position.

Despite suggestions that the Society should disband, Popham stated: “I will never consent to consign to eternal oblivion an institution which received the sanction of Washington.” Popham died in 1847 and was succeeded by Henry A.S. Dearborn, the first hereditary member to serve in that position.

The last surviving Continental officer in the Society, Robert Burnet, Jr from the New York chapter died in1854. That same year Hamilton Fish of New York was elected president general of the Society and they began to take the first serious steps to revive the organization, which had dwindled to six state societies. Fish and other leaders were determined to renew the organization and its national prominence. They were a new generation that wanted all who had served in our War for Independence to be remembered and honored.

The original Institution only admitted descendants of original members as hereditary members. The new “Rule of 1854” allowed the admission of descendants of all qualified officers, even if those officers had not joined the society. This essentially doubled the number of potential members. Five of the surviving six State Societies adopted the new rule. Pennsylvania was the first, but then found their founding documents contained the original Institution and could only be changed by the legislature.

Despite a great start, the revival of the Society was interrupted by the Civil War. Although the State Societies were separated, the common bonds endured and were renewed in 1869 when South Carolina returned to the national convention. By 1872, a southerner was elected to national office and the Society was on the brink of a major renewal and expansion.

The national celebration of the centennial of American Independence prompted interest in Society membership and the reestablishment of the dissolved state societies began. Rhode Island was readmitted in 1877; Connecticut and Virginia in 1896; New Hampshire, Delaware, and North Carolina in 1902; and Georgia in 1904.

The late nineteenth century was a period of steady growth and accomplishment when the Society took the lead in many patriotic commemorations. They sent delegates to the dedication of the Washington monument in 1885. They participated in the 1887 commemoration of the Constitution and in the 1889 commemoration of Washington’s first inauguration. The Society was very involved in the erection of plaques and statues of revolutionary heroes, including the statues of Rochambeau and Lafayette in Washinton’s Lafayette Square. Both were depicted wearing Society Eagles. The Rhode Island and South Carolina Societies located the remains of Major General Nathaniel Greene and moved them to the Greene Monument in Savannah, Georgia.

The largest memorial effort was by the Pennsylvania Society which took the lead in the erection of the monumental equestrian statue of George Washington in Philadelphia. This statue was dedicated by President McKinley in 1897.

The revival of the Society was finally completed when the French Society was readmitted in 1925. This had been discussed in 1881 during the commemoration of the centennial of the victory at Yorktown, Virginia, but was not seriously acted on until World War I. The Society supported American intervention in the war by citing the decisive French support during our War for Independence. The resolution read: “Remembering that it was the aid of France that made the United States a nation, we welcome the opportunity to repay the debt which was then incurred and to help a people whom we love and admire.” The debt was paid in two world wars with a sea of American blood.

Although General of the Army John J. Pershing gave the credit to Colonel Charles Stanton, he allegedly stated: “Lafayette we are here” on 4 July 1917 after American troops arrived in France.

Anderson House-Washington, DC - Society of the Cincinnati — Anderson House-Washington, DC

The invigorated Society had long discussed the need for a permanent headquarters and that need was fulfilled in 1938 when Isabel Anderson, acting on the wishes of her late husband, Larz Anderson, gave the Society their elegant and large mansion in Washington, DC. The “Anderson Mansion” has served as Society Headquarters ever since and provides a home for international offices, an extensive library, a museum, and educational programs.

The establishment of a headquarters led to a dramatic increase in membership and to an increase in the Society’s activities and educational programs. In 1937 the Society’s programs had already grown too large and complex to be managed by volunteer members. To compensate they established a non-profit corporation to manage their programs and the Society’s tangible assets. A corporate board drawn from the 14 constituent societies and several committees manage most of the organization’s activities. The Society maintains an extensive and growing library on the revolutionary era and has impressive collections of revolutionary artifacts and art. Researchers and scholars from all over the world use these assets. The Society also conducts public exhibitions, lectures, and symposiums.

Today’s Society is a dynamic organization that is accomplishing the purposes outlined by the founders in the original Institution. They are perpetuating the memory and ideals of the American Revolution and of those who made our Republic possible by their sacrifices.

Most Americans are unaware of the Society and its contribution to the knowledge of our founding because the Society operates without fanfare. I have reviewed a 100-year-listing of Society hereditary and honorary members, and it is impressive. It includes famous military leaders and political leaders, including many US presidents. The membership is a who’s who of people who have contributed much to our national development and security. The Society of the Cincinnati is a 100 percent American patriotic organization. I am happy that I decided to research them. I feel proud that such a group exists to remind us of the sacrifices that have been made to achieve and maintain our freedom. God Bless the USA.

July 7, 2021July 7, 2021

John Marshall Judicial Hero

John Marshall was the fourth Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He established the court as the arbiter of all questions of constitutionality at all levels and the court’s role in the federal government. The Marshall court also confirmed the supremacy of the federal government and the federal Constitution over the states. He is regarded as the most influential justice to ever sit on the court which makes him one of the most influential to ever serve in our government.

The first of 15 children of Thomas Marshall and Mary Randolph Keith, John Marshall was born on 24 September 1755 in a log cabin in the frontier town of Germantown, Virginia (Near present day Midland). Thomas was employed by Lord Fairfax as a surveyor and land agent for Fauquier County, which provided a substantial income. Mary was descended from the powerful and wealthy Randolph family but was shunned by that family because her mother had eloped with a man the family believed was beneath her station in life.

John Marshall had little formal education. He was mostly home schooled by his father and was tutored by the Reverend James Thompson who resided with the Marshall family. He did spend one year at the Campbell Academy in Westmoreland County where he became friends with classmate and future president, James Madison. He was particularly influenced by his father who he credited with preparing him for the future. In later life he wrote the following: “to his care I am indebted for anything valuable which I may have acquired in my youth. He was my only intelligent companion; and was both a watchful parent and an affectionate friend.”

Thomas Marshall had served with George Washington during the French and Indian War (1754-1763). Thomas and Washington were lifelong friends. Young John Marshall knew and admired Washington and was greatly influenced by him.

Thomas Marshall prospered and in 1773 completed construction of his estate known as Oak Hill. This estate is near Delaplane, Fauquier County, Virginia. It is still a working farm, and the beautiful original house is occupied.

After the 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord, Thomas and John Marshall both volunteered for military service. General Washington had encouraged 20-year-old John to volunteer, and he was commissioned lieutenant in the 3^rd Virginia Regiment. He proved to be a brave and talented young officer. John Marshall fought in several battles including Great Bridge, Brandywine, and Germantown. He was wounded at Germantown and endured the brutal winter at Valley Forge.

In 1780, John Marshall took leave to visit his father, Colonel Thomas Marshall at Yorktown. He met his future wife, Mary Willis Ambler while at Yorktown. John also left the military in 1780 to study law.

John Marshall attended a series of lectures by the famous Chancellor George Wythe at the College of William and Mary at Williamsburg, Virginia. These lectures only lasted about six weeks and were the only formal legal education that John Marshall ever received. However, he had quickly gained a firm understanding of the law.

Admission to the Virginia Bar also came in 1780, and John Marshall began his own legal practice. He built a successful practice mainly by defending clients against British creditors who were attempting to collect debts incurred before the Revolutionary War.

John Marshall married Mary “Polly” Ambler on 3 January 1783 in the home of her cousin, John Ambler. In 1790 the couple moved to a home they had built in Richmond, Virginia. They spent as much time as possible in this home where they could relax from the pressures of public life. In 1803, Marshall inherited Oak Hill when his father died, and they also spent private time there.

Concurrent with starting a legal practice, Marshall got involved in local and state politics. In 1782 he was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates for the first time. He was elected to this position again in 1787 and 1795. He rose rapidly in state politics due to his intelligence, charisma, and debating skills. In 1785 he became Recorder of the Richmond City Hustings Court where he presided over small criminal and civil court cases. In this position Marshall earned a reputation of fairness and clear communication.

In 1786 Marshall purchased the law practice of his cousin, Edmund Randolph who had been elected governor of Virginia. He practiced in Richmond and was widely known as a talented lawyer. He was quite successful taking on a wide array of important cases.

Marshall was also interested in national politics and recognized that the Articles of Confederation were inadequate for the country. Shays’ Rebellion reinforced his opinion. The Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania produced the new Constitution and submitted it to the states for ratification. Marshall was elected to the 1788 Virginia Ratifying Convention where he worked with James Madison to convince the delegates to ratify the document. After a long and contentious debate, Virginia ratified the Constitution by a vote of 89 to 79.

After the United States Government was established under the Constitution, newly elected President George Washington nominated Marshall to be US Attorney for Virginia. The nomination was confirmed by the Senate, but Marshall declined preferring to focus on his law practice.

When political parties were organized, Marshall identified with the Federalists and at the request of Alexander Hamilton organized the Federalists movement in Virginia to counter the influence of Thomas Jefferson’s Democratic-Republican party.

In 1795 President Washington asked Marshall to accept appointment as US Attorney General, but Marshall again declined. He did, however, serve in a variety of roles for the state of Virginia during this time.

Marshall argued a case (Ware v. Hylton) before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1796, but the court ruled against him. He did earn considerable admiration for the organization and delivery of his position.

Vice President John Adams, a Federalists, defeated Thomas Jefferson for the presidency in 1796. Adams wanted to continue the Washington policy of neutrality in the French Revolution, but the French began attacking American ships. Marshall was appointed to a three-member commission to negotiate with the French. The other members were Charles Pinckney and Elbridge Gerry. French Foreign Minister Talleyrand refused to negotiate with the delegation, and three of his agents demanded huge bribes to start serious negotiations. The Americans refused and left France.

When the facts about the French demands became public, Americans were incensed. The incident became popularly known as the “XYZ” Affair. In retaliation Congress imposed an embargo on French trade, and the “Quasi-War” with France began. Marshall supported most of the measures Congress adopted during the war, but he did oppose the Alien and Sedition Acts which were written to suppress dissent.

After his return from France, Marshall wanted to resume his private law practice, but George Washington convinced him to challenge a Democratic-Republican for the Thirteenth Virginia Congressional District seat. Marshall won in part because of the support of Patrick Henry. During the campaign, Marshall declined appointment to the US Supreme Court and President Adams appointed Bushrod Washington instead. Marshall took his seat when the sixth Congress convened in December 1799. He quickly emerged as a leader of moderate Federalists.

In May 1800, President Adams nominated Marshall to be Secretary of War, but changed his mind and nominated him as Secretary of State. Marshall was confirmed and took office on 6 June 1800. Marshall’s nomination had occurred because of a split between President Adams and Alexander Hamilton. Hamilton led a Federalist faction that favored declaring war on France. Secretary of State Timothy Pickering was a Hamilton supporter and tried to undermine peace negotiations with France, so Adams had fired him and nominated Marshall.

Adams directed Marshall to find an end to the Quasi-War with France and to settle ongoing disputes with Britain, Spain, and the Barbary States. The Convention of 1800 ended the Quasi-War and reestablished trade with France and the situation with the Barbary States was settled by returning to earlier, although unsatisfactory agreements on 4 June 1805. Problems with Britain and Spain were not settled until the American victory in the War of 1812.

In those days, the office of Secretary of State included a wide range of domestic responsibilities, including deliverance of commissions of federal appointments and supervision of the construction of Washington, D.C. Obviously, the Secretary of State was a terribly busy man.

With the Federalists divided between Hamilton and Adams, the Democratic-Republicans swept the 1800 election. The vote ended in a tie between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, so the election was decided by the House of Representatives. Hamilton asked Marshall to support Jefferson, but he declined to support either candidate. Much to the anger of Burr, the House elected Jefferson President.

The Adams administration did not end until 4 March 1801 and Adams and the lame duck Congress passed the “Midnight Judges Act.” This act made sweeping changes to the federal judiciary including a reduction in justices of the Supreme Court from six to five. This was done to deny Jefferson an appointment until two vacancies occurred.

In late 1800, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Oliver Ellsworth resigned due to poor health. Adams quickly nominated former Chief Justice John Jay, but Jay declined on 20 January 1801. With little time left before the Jefferson would take office, Marshall suggested that Adams elevate Associate Justice William Paterson, but Adams rejected this and appointed him instead.

There was considerable resistance to Marshall’s nomination in the Senate, but he was confirmed on 27 January 1801 and took office on 4 February. At the request of President Adams, Marshall also continued to serve as Secretary of State until Jefferson took office. John Adams later stated that “my gift of John Marshall to the people of the United States was the proudest act of my life.”

The Marshall Court convened for the first time on 2 February 1801 in the Supreme Court Chamber in the basement of the Capitol Building–the planners of Washington DC had forgotten to provide space for the Court. The Court consisted of Chief Justice Marshall and Associate Judges William Cushing, William Paterson, Samuel Chase, Bushrod Washington, and Alfred Moore.

Since its establishment, the Court had been seen as relatively insignificant. It had issued only 63 decisions that had little impact, and it had never struck down a state or federal statute. Under the 34 years of John Marshall leadership, the Supreme Court became a powerful and important part of the federal government. Marshall himself was instrumental in shaping the nation’s understanding of constitutional law.

Marshall quickly changed the way the Court announced its decisions. Up to that time, each Justice authored a separate opinion (known as a “seriatim” opinion), which was confusing and weakened the authority of the Court. Marshall adopted the practice of handing down only a single majority opinion in order to present a clear ruling.

The Court met in Washington only two months a year—February and March. For six months the justices did circuit court duty in the states. When the Court was in session, the Justices boarded together in the same rooming house and avoided outside socializing. They discussed and argued each case intensely among themselves and usually made decisions in a matter of days. They Justices did not have clerks, so they had to listen closely to oral arguments and then introduce their opinions to the group to discuss and reach a majority ruling.

Portrait of Justice Joseph Story — Justice Joseph Story

Chief Justice Marshall was a strong and charismatic leader who quickly recognized key points and was quite persuasive in debates. However, Marshall would listen to and consider all opinions preferring to reach decisions by consensus. After a decision was made, Marshall usually wrote the ruling himself. Since he was not widely read in the law, he seldom cited precedents. Instead, he often had Justice Joseph Story (a renowned legal scholar) locate the precedents and insert them.

During the 34-year-tenure of Marshall, the court would issue more than 1,000 decisions. Marshall personally wrote about half of the total, but he wrote two-thirds of those addressing constitutional questions.

Obviously, the court’s decisions covered a wide range of legal questions, but from what I have read most legal scholars have selected five as landmark cases that set groundbreaking precedent. I will point out the importance and precedence of these cases, but I am not competent to discuss the legal details.

“Marbury v. Madison” which reached the Supreme Court in 1803 was the first landmark case and established the Court’s right of judicial review (the ability to strike down state and federal laws based on constitutionality).

The case involved a dispute over President Jefferson’s refusal to allow Secretary of State Madison to deliver a commission authorized during the Adam’s administration. Politics were quite partisan, and Jefferson habitually pushed his perceived powers to, and past, the constitutional limits. The Court ruled that they had no power to force Jefferson to honor the commission, but they determined that Section 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional. Based on this finding, the Court ruled that all laws conflicting with the Constitution should be rendered “null and void.”

Marbury v. Madison instituted the process of judicial review and positioned the Supreme Court as an equal partner with the legislative and executive branches. Today we accept this equality without question, but in 1803 governmental powers were still being sorted out by powerful and often jealous men.

“Fletcher v. Peck” came to the Supreme Court after the state of Georgia sold much of its frontier land to speculators in 1795. These buyers then resold the land to other speculators. There was a lot of bribery involved in these transactions which caused a public outcry. Georgia rescinded the sales and unsuccessfully tried to buy back the land at less than current value. President Jefferson tried to arrange for the Federal government to buy the land and compensate the investors, but the bill was defeated. The problem remained unresolved and reached the Marshall Court in1810.

In March, a unanimous decision of the Court voided Georgia’s rescinding of the original sales on the basis of the Contract Clause. This clause prohibits states from “impairing the obligations of contracts.” and they ruled the original sale of land was a contract. This case was important because it was the first time the Court ruled a state law unconstitutional, which further strengthened the Court’s standing.

“McCulloch v. Maryland” began in 1816 when Congress established the Second Bank of the United States to regulate the money supply and to provide loans. The state of Maryland imposed a tax on the bank’s branch in Baltimore, but the manager refused to pay. Maryland tried and convicted the manager, James McCulloch, who in 1819 appealed his conviction to the Supreme Court.

Maryland challenged the constitutionality of the bank and asserted it had the right to tax it. Marshall wrote the opinion which asserted that Congress had the power to charter the national bank and laid down the basic principle of “implied powers.” He wrote that the Constitution was “to endure for ages to come, and, consequently, to be adapted to the various crises of human affairs….” The Court also ruled that Maryland could not tax a national bank asserting that the power to tax is equivalent to “the power to destroy.”

Some legal scholars believe that the McCulloch v. Maryland was the most controversial decision made by the Marshall Court. Southerners attacked the decision as an overreach of federal power, but the principle of “implied powers” survived. In a subsequent case, “Osborn v. Bank of the United States,” the court ordered a state official to return seized funds to the bank and declared the Eleventh Amendment does not grant state officials “sovereign immunity” when they resist a federal court order.

“Cohens v. Virginia” came before the Court in 1821. The Cohen brothers had sold Washington D.C. lottery tickets in Virginia which violated Virginia state law. The brothers were convicted but appealed to the Supreme Court arguing that Congress had started the lottery, so they had a right to sell tickets in any state. The Marshall Court ruled in favor of Virginia and declared that the Supreme Court could review appeals from state courts that involved criminal law. This case is considered pivotal because it helped establish constitutional parameters for conflicting local and state laws.

“Gibbons v. Ogden” involved a monopoly granted to Robert Livingston and Robert Fulton in 1808 by the state of New York for the navigation of steamboats in state waters. The monopoly then granted a license to the partnership of Aaron Ogden and Thomas Gibbons to operate steamboats in New York waters. The partnership collapsed but Gibbons received a federal license allowing him to operate in the waters of any state. Ogden then won a judgment in state court that ordered Gibbons to cease operations in New York. Gibbons appealed to the Supreme Court in 1824.

Gibbons was represented by Congressman Daniel Webster and Attorney General William Wirt. They argued that Congress had exclusive power to regulate commerce while Ogden’s attorneys claimed the Constitution did not prohibit states from restricting navigation.

The Marshall Court ruled that navigation was a form of commerce and could be regulated by Congress. Further, since the monopoly conflicted with the federal license, the Court struck down the monopoly. The Supreme Court decision did not adopt Webster’s claim that Congress had the sole power to regulate commerce. This ruling was hailed in newspapers in all sections of the country as a blow against monopolies and the restraint of trade.

In 1829, Andrew Jackson was sworn in as President of the United States. Marshall was personally opposed to Jackson and had in fact criticized him during the campaign because he had attacked President John Q. Adams. President Jackson was a very direct and forceful man and he clashed with the Supreme Court often, particularly with regards to Jackson’s policy of Indian removal.

The Marshall Court had in 1823 established the supremacy of the federal government in dealing with Native American tribes. This supremacy was challenged by the state of Georgia during the 1830’s which caused a lot of legal activity. The case was eventually settled in favor of the federal government.

The Court also established that it had the power to hear appeals from state supreme courts when a federal issue was involved; that the protections of the Contract Clause applied to private corporations; and they upheld a state law that allowed individuals to file for bankruptcy. Marshall personally opposed the latter because he believed it violated the Contract Clause.

Volumes have been written about the Marshall Court’s decisions, but that type of analysis is beyond the scope of this article. There are, however, two incidents that Marshall was involved in that I believe reflect his character as a man.

Portrait of Justice Samuel Chase-Marshall Court — Justice Samuel Chase

The first was the 1804 impeachment of Associate Justice Samuel Chase by the House of Representatives. The House alleged that Chase had shown political bias in his judicial conduct. Many saw this as an attempt to intimidate federal judges appointed by an opposing political party. Marshall was a witness in the trial. He defended Chase and in March 1805 Chase was acquitted by a bipartisan Senate vote. Marshall’s reputation for honesty and legal knowledge was instrumental in obtaining bipartisan support for Chase. This case helped establish the independence of the Supreme Court from partisan politics.

The next incident was the trial of Aaron Burr. Burr had been Vice President in the first administration of Thomas Jefferson but was not renominated in the 1804 election. When his term ended in 1805, Burr traveled to the western frontier. He was planning to establish an independent country by overthrowing the Spanish in Texas. It was alleged that he also planned to illegally acquire territory from US states.

When the plot became known, President Jefferson demanded that Burr be arrested and charged with treason even though no warrant had been issued. Burr was arrested in 1807 and John Marshall presided over the trial. The only physical evidence against Burr was determined to be a forgery so there was no evidence to support the charge of treason and Burr was acquitted of all charges. Marshall had pointed out that thinking about a crime did not actually constitute a crime.

Marshall had been under intense pressure to convict Burr of treason, but he resisted and adhered to the law and legal precedence. President Jefferson was livid at the outcome of the trial and Marshall was viciously attacked by the president and the Democrat-Republican party. Marshall’s honorable resistance to politics further strengthened the independence of the judiciary.

After the death of Associate Justice Bushrod Washington in 1829, Marshall was the last original member of the Marshall Court and his influence declined as new justices joined the court. However, Marshall continued to preside over the court until his death in 1835.

In 1831, Marshall traveled to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania where he had surgery to remove “bladder stones.” His wife Polly died in December 1831 in Richmond. Their union had resulted in ten children, six who survived to adulthood. Between the births of a son in 1787 and a daughter in1795, Polly suffered two miscarriages and the death of two infants, which adversely affected her health for the rest of her life.

Graves of Chief Justice John Marshall and Spouse Mary — John and Mary Marshall Graves

In early 1835, Marshall returned to Philadelphia for medical treatment, where he died on 6 July at the age of 79. The Liberty Bell was rung during his funeral procession to honor this giant of American history. Although not likely true, legend has it that this is when the bell cracked and never rung again. Marshall’s body was returned to Richmond and buried next to Polly in Shockoe Hill Cemetery.

John Marshall was Chief Justice of the Supreme Court for 34 years making him the longest serving Chief Justice in American history. The three Chief Justices that preceded him – John Jay, John Rutledge, and Oliver Ellsworth- had done little to enhance the role of the Court. It was a minor organ of the government when Marshall took over. Marshall and his Associate Justices issued more than 1,000 opinions and made the Court into a third co-equal branch of the US government. By his intellect and determination, Marshall gave the Court energy, weight, and dignity. He gave content to the Constitution’s omissions, clarified its ambiguities, and added breathtaking sweep to the powers it conferred.

Marshall Court decisions helped build a strong federal government and established the Supreme Court as the final arbiter of all questions of constitutionality with the power to overrule Congress, the President, the states, and all lower courts. The Marshall Court also defended the legal rights of corporations and shielded them from intrusive state governments. The Marshall Court firmly established the Constitution as the supreme law of the land and made the Court into what it is today.

Statue of Chief Justice John Marshall in Supreme Court

John Marshall has been honored in many ways. The Library of Congress, the University of Virginia, and the College of William and Mary all have extensive collections of his papers. His image appeared on early currency and on postal stamps. A statue of Marshall stands on the ground floor of the Supreme Court Building, in the John Marshall Park in Washington D.C., and on the grounds of the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Numerous communities and counties are named for him. Many schools of all academic levels, including law schools, are named for him. A commemorative John Marshall dollar was minted in 2005.

I believe John Marshall has had more influence on the American government and on individual Americans than any other person in our history. In 1824 Senator Martin Van Buren, a political enemy, conceded that the Court attracted “idolatry” and its chief was admired “as the ablest judge now sitting upon any judicial bench in the world.” Quite high praise from an enemy! John Marshall was, and still is, a giant of American history and definitely was a super patriot and an American hero.

June 15, 2021March 17, 2022

Failed British Colonial Rule of America

English Royal Coat of Arms-Symbol of British Rule — English Royal Coat of Arms

BACKGROUND

Like most Americans I believed the 13 American colonies were a monolithic group of settlements that were governed by the British monarch. Nothing could be farther from the truth. Each British colony was established for various reasons and one, New York, was originally founded by the Dutch. British colonial rule was administered by a complex and very inefficient bureaucracy in London that acted in the name of the Crown and Parliament. They believed they had the right to govern the colonies any way they saw fit. This was a recipe for conflict because the American colonists were very independent.

The precise relationship between the Crown and any individual colony depended on whether it was a Royal Colony, a Charter Colony, or a Proprietary Colony. All were founded by Royal authorization, but a Charter Colony was granted to a joint-stock company, a Proprietary Colony was owned by individuals, and Royal Colonies were owned and governed directly by the British government.

The settlers came for many reasons, but the opportunity to better themselves and to escape religious persecution were the most common reasons. Once in the New World, most were quite comfortable to be British subjects, and the early settlers were more concerned with survival than politics. Most settlers did have many traits in common. They were independent, individualistic, confident, hard-working, tough, and ambitious. In short, they were “risk takers.” These traits in an undeveloped environment resulted in successful and prosperous colonies with more freedom than in the mother country.

Prosperity also led to more schools which led to better educated citizens. A more literate public led to newspapers and pamphlets to keep them informed about the news and politics. The colonists were also in better health because they were better fed and lived in a cleaner and less crowded environment. The crowded cities and towns of Europe were breeding grounds for disease, poverty, and despair.

The British government did not interfere with colonial affairs much to begin with having little time for the colonies. Britain was preoccupied with internal strife and happy to reap the benefits of cheap imports and an expanding demand for British products. Mostly London enacted laws and regulations to maximize economic benefits, which usually were good for the colonies too. Some changes, however, adversely affected the colonies, which resulted in considerable resentment and friction.

American colonists passed their own laws and raised militias for their own defense. They believed that England was sovereign and recognized that British citizenship had many advantages. As time passed, however, the colonists realized that without representation in the British government, they were often given the “short end of the stick.” Resentment about this smoldered until the colonists finally exploded in revolution.

Europe was also cursed with seemingly endless wars that drained their coffers and resulted in more devastation and poverty. Since the great powers of the day, Britain, France, Holland, and Spain had competing colonies in the New World, their wars usually resulted in conflict in the colonies. The largest was the French and Indian War (1754-63), which was long and bloody. The main benefit for the Americans who fought in these wars was that it trained a cadre that became the core of the Continental Army.

Britain eventually wanted Americans to help pay for their wars and for the presence of British troops in the colonies. The colonists did not share this view. This is when the Crown began to interfere with the colonial governments and to levy additional taxes. The colonists resented the interference and believed no tax was legitimate unless enacted or approved by them. The increased colonial resistance caused Britain to tighten the screws more, which caused more resistance. No matter who was right about the details, the two sides were locked in a contest that was rapidly spiraling toward revolution.

Proclamation of 1763-Failed Colonial Rule — Proclamation of 1763

One huge cause of resistance was the “Proclamation of 1763.” This 7 October royal proclamation outlawed all settlement in the vast area between the “crest of the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River.” It also limited settlement in wide stretches east of the mountains by declaring previous purchases from the Indians “illegal.” The crown wrongly believed this would prevent future Indian wars. The proclamation would have stopped most western expansion, which was key to colonial development. It was hated by farmers, speculators, and pioneers, and they all ignored it. It also caused heated colonial protest and moved the needle closer to Revolution.

Another crucial factor that is sometimes ignored by historians is that between 1607 and 1775, at least six generations had been born in the American colonies. Although these generations had a political attachment to Britain, they had no emotional ties and did not identify with the mother country. There were many new immigrants, but these “home grown” people were born “American.” They felt free, and they were tough and self-reliant. Many lived on the dangerous frontier.

At the start of the Revolutionary War, Britain had a far-flung empire of 31 colonies from North America to Asia. They had to defend their right to rule these colonies or risk losing them. Unfortunately for them, they had not established control in America early, and tried to exert control too late. This never works and they were doomed to fail.

THE COLONIES

The first British colony in America was Virginia, a Charter Colony, which was founded in 1607. In 1619, they established a two-part legislature consisting of the governor and his council, which were appointed by the company in England, and a House of Burgesses representing each settlement. During that summer, the first true legislature in North America met in a log church in Jamestown. Virginia became the first Royal Colony in 1624 when the bankrupt Virginia Company’s charter was revoked.

Virginia developed as a plantation-agricultural society based on tobacco which rapidly depletes the fertility of the land. This led to rapid expansion as new land was needed for new generations and new immigrants. An elite class of educated large landowners dominated the colonial government and Virginia produced many future revolutionaries.

Large plantations were labor-intensive, and labor was provided by African slaves and white indentured servants. Early planters preferred the indentured servants. These people were mainly English who had willingly bound themselves to servitude for four to six years to pay for their transport to America. For a few years more than 1,500 indentured servants arrived every year. This was a boon to colonization and the economy because when their servitude was worked out, most moved west and established their own farms and plantations.

Virginia colony was dominated by the Anglican Church, which was the official state religion. The Anglican vestry did provide education for the masses and assured that most poor children could read and write. This was a major positive factor in the colony’s development. Wealthy planters and merchants employed tutors for their children who then often attended one of the institutions of higher learning that were being founded in the colonies.

The settlement of New England, which produced many revolutionaries, began in 1620 with the Pilgrims who adopted the Mayflower Compact to establish that they would live together under civil officers of their own choosing. They then landed at Plymouth and began building housing. They soon established their form of governing in the first New England town meeting.

The early settlement of New England was by those seeking religious freedom, and the Pilgrims were joined by the Puritans during the 1630-42 “Great Migration.” The Puritans had suffered greatly due to official religious discrimination in England, but this also bred strong Puritan leaders.

In 1629 the Crown gave a charter to the Massachusetts Bay Company, which the Puritans quickly gained control of. Boston became the center of this colony and the colony grew rapidly. It is believed that by 1641 about 300 ships had transported about 20,000 settlers to New England. The settlers were mostly English and religious zeal motivated most of them. They established a church state, and expansion was by groups establishing towns that were constructed following a standard design. Each town was self-governing, independent, and controlled by a central church.

The Massachusetts Bay Colony government became harsh and intolerant which led to many of differing faiths choosing to escape. Rhode Island was colonized and others settled on the Connecticut River and New Haven. Early inhabitants of Maine and New Hampshire remained under the control of Massachusetts Bay.

Henry Hudson sailed into what is now New York Bay in 1609. This voyage was to set up a Dutch trading post for the importation of lumber, furs, and tobacco. However, in 1621 the Netherlands government chartered the Dutch West India Company to set up a colony. Two years later Protestant refugees from the Netherlands established the first settlement on the island of Manhattan.

Five years later, more settlers arrived, and the Dutch “purchased” the island from the Indians. New Amsterdam was founded and became a very “cosmopolitan” city, which housed privateers, smugglers, many taverns, and fun-seeking sailors. By 1629 the Dutch had changed the colony to a feudal state that was ruled by harsh, autocratic, and blundering officials.

The British could not allow a foreign presence in the middle of their colonies and in 1664 a small English fleet forced the surrender of the Dutch colony without firing a shot. The 7,000 inhabitants accepted the new rulers without protest. Charles II appointed his brother James, the Duke of York, ruler and proprietor of the colony of New York. This colony stretched from the Connecticut River to the Delaware River. The new governor was instructed to establish a liberal regime that would accommodate all the inhabitants. He accomplished this goal, and a representative assembly was established in 1683.

William Penn Portrait-historyplex.com — William Penn

One of the greatest colonial figures was William Penn who founded what became Pennsylvania and Delaware. He was the son of a prominent British Admiral and had converted to the Society of Friends (Quakers). He was a friend of the Duke of York, and the King owed Admiral Penn a large debt. Young William Penn wanted to establish a colony where every race and sect could find political and religious freedom. In 1681 the Crown awarded him a proprietary charter.

William Penn advertised for settlers in four languages offering land on liberal terms, and Pennsylvania flourished beyond any other colony. Immigrants from England and Germany flocked to this colony because of religious freedom, humane criminal legislation, easy terms for obtaining fertile land, and opportunities for trade and manufacturing.

Penn chartered a representative government with himself as governor in 1682. It operated so well that he issued an improved charter in 1701.

The high intellectual and moral standards of the Quakers resulted in an unusually elevated cultural level in Pennsylvania. It was known for its libraries, refined homes, scientific advancement, and architectural taste.

Pennsylvania started many of the institutions that America later prided itself for:

-complete religious freedom,

– distribution of land to settlers at low cost,

– becoming a “melting pot” of people, and

– establishment of schools open to all.

Before his death, Penn purchased three counties on the Delaware River from the Duke of York. This land became the colony of Delaware. Initially, Pennsylvania and Delaware shared a governor, but in 1702 Delaware established its own elective government.

The colony of Maryland was established as a proprietary colony in 1632. The charter was presented to George Calvert, First Baron Baltimore. The intent was to provide a refuge for Roman Catholics and the first shipload of Catholics established St. Marys in 1634. However, Protestants rapidly became the majority because most Catholics opted to stay in Britain. A religious toleration act was passed in 1649 but was repealed after a few years, and Catholics endured discrimination for many years.

The area that became New Jersey underwent many confusing and unprofitable changes. The Duke of York, the original proprietor, gave the area between the Hudson and Delaware Rivers to two friends, Lord John Berkeley, and Sir George Carteret. They called the area the Province of Nova Cesaria, or New Jersey. They offered generous terms for acquiring land, freedom of conscience, and a popular government to attract settlers. By 1764 Berkeley sold his half to two Quakers who took the southwestern part of the colony. In 1680 Carteret’s widow sold the remainder to new proprietors. These changes did not result in a viable colony, so the Crown took it all, establishing a Royal Colony.

The area south of Virginia was also colonized by proprietors. One group obtained a grant for all of North America between the 31^st and 36^th parallels. The founders established the familiar government of a governor, council, and assembly. The two segments of this vast land were developed very differently. Charleston, South Carolina was founded in 1670 by settlers from England and the overcrowded colony of Barbados. French Huguenots and Scots followed and by 1700, Charleston was a thriving city.

The economy of South Carolina was originally based on exports of food, turpentine, tar, and furs, but when rice was introduced it resulted in large plantations to produce rice and indigo. The large exports of rice required a significant movement west for more land and the introduction of African slaves to labor on the plantations. A wealthy planter class soon developed that constructed large and opulent estates. Most planters spent the hottest summer months in their fine town houses in Charleston, which had a pleasant social life with rich traders and merchants.

The land to the north had a vastly different social and economic character. Much of the North Carolina terrain did not lend itself to the development of large plantations. Like Virginia, the main export was tobacco but in North Carolina it was mostly grown on small farms. There were no great ports like Charleston, so the colony had no large merchant fleet nor supporting merchant class.

North Carolina had a few great plantations and aristocracy, but nothing comparable to their neighbors. Consequently, there was no need for large numbers of slaves, and the white population grew faster than in the other southern colonies. The early North Carolina population was generally poorer and less educated than those in Virginia and South Carolina.

North Carolina did become a prosperous colony, but it developed slowly. The people of the colony were determined, tough, and hard-working and could not be held back. They overcame all the obstacles that faced them to take their place as a colony unique but the equal of all others.

Georgia, a proprietary colony, was the last of the 13 colonies to be established. It was the creation of a group of British philanthropists who obtained grant of the land between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers. These men were more idealistic than realistic, but their goal was laudable. They hoped to give debtors and deserving poor people a fresh start in life.

The town of Savannah was founded in 1733, but the founders imposed unrealistic regulations on the colony: the importation of all drinking alcohol was forbidden, and slavery was prohibited. They also restricted every charity colonist to only 50 acres of land that could only be transmitted to a male heir.

The regulations severely retarded the growth of the colony. The settlers, however, quickly realized that they needed larger tracts of land for economical agriculture and that they needed slaves for labor. They also wanted to trade lumber for importation of rum from the West Indies.

The proprietors gradually eased the rules and in 1751 allowed the colonists to elect an assembly. The proprietorship lapsed in 1752 and no effort was made to renew it. They allowed the Crown to take over the colony and Georgia became a Royal Colony.

The colony was still weak and required constant subsidies, but gradually agriculture became more like South Carolina. It developed a society of wealthy planters in the lowlands, merchants in Savannah, and small farmers in the uplands.

The lesser-known benefits of the establishment of the Georgia colony include that it provided opportunities for many neglected and abused people; it established a buffer between the other colonies and hostile Spanish Florida; and it laid the foundations for a great state.

By the start of the Revolutionary War all but five of the 13 colonies were Royal Colonies. The five were Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware which were Proprietary Colonies, and Rhode Island, and Connecticut which were Charter Colonies. The estimated total population of the colonies was about 2,500,000 including about 400,000 slaves.

SUMMARY

On the eve of the outbreak of hostilities, all chances for reconciliation with the Crown had failed and there was no going back. The colonists were finally united in a cause after years of failed attempts to unite them. Colonial union was still tenuous, and the differences would come into play when the Constitution was drafted. In the end this was healthy because we ended up with a Republic with built in protections for the states and for “we the people.”

The British had failed miserably at governing the American colonies by being inconsistent in establishing control. They had allowed the Americans to have more political freedom than any other people in the world until about 1760 when they began trying to exert authority. They were doubling the number of British troops in the colonies, demanding the colonies pay more taxes, and trying to control more of the colonial economy.

Americans had been different from the start, and they had no intention of accepting what they saw as a subordinate position in the empire. They were proud of the fighting record of their soldiers. They knew Philadelphia was the second largest city in the empire, and that as a seat of learning, scientific inquiry, and the arts it compared well with any city outside of London. They knew that American commerce equaled that of Britain and that they were advancing faster than any other people in the world. A spirit of self-sufficiency was everywhere, especially among those on the frontier and among the artisans, mechanics, and laborers of the towns. Revolution was inevitable. John Adams said it best:

“The Revolution was effected before the war commenced. The Revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people.”

June 1, 2021June 15, 2021

Roger Sherman-Stern and Vocal Hero

Portrait of Roger Sherman — Roger Sherman

Roger Sherman of Connecticut was the only founding father to sign all four of the American founding documents: The Continental Association, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution. Sherman served in local, colonial, state, and federal positions. After ratification of the Constitution, he served in the US House of Representatives and Senate. Despite his lack of formal education, he was a major benefactor of Yale College where he received an honorary MA Degree and served as professor of religion. Roger Sherman was an American patriot and hero.

The Shermans were farmers in Newton, Massachusetts where Roger was born on 19 April 1721. His parents, William and Mehetabel, moved the family to the frontier town of Stoughton when Roger was two years old. He was quite intelligent, but his education was limited to his father’s good library and a grammar school, which was built when he was about 13. The town, however, was fortunate to have a Harvard educated parish minister, Rev. Samuel Dunbar, who helped Roger gain some knowledge of math, science, literature, and philosophy.

William Sherman died in 1743 and the family relocated to New Milford, Connecticut. Roger and his brother William opened the first store in the town and became leading citizens. Roger quickly became involved in civil and religious affairs. He served as town clerk and in 1745 became county surveyor.

Roger Sherman married Elizabeth Hartwell on 17 November 1749. Elizabeth was the daughter of Deacon Joseph Hartwell and was born in Stoughton on 31 August 1726.

Despite having no legal training, a local lawyer urged Sherman to read for the bar exam. He was admitted to the bar in Litchfield, Connecticut in 1754. He was then chosen to represent New Milford in the Connecticut House of Representatives from 1755 to 1758 and again in 1760 and 1761.

Elizabeth Hartwell Sherman died on 19 October 1760. Elizabeth was known for her gentle nature and Christian character. Their union had resulted in seven children, two which did not survive infancy. Elizabeth was buried in the Center Cemetery in New Milford.

By 1761, Roger Sherman was a successful landowner and businessman who had become an equally successful politician. He was fully integrated into the social and political fabric of New England. Political activists in New England, especially Boston, were leading the country toward revolution. Sherman opposed extremism but resented British interference in colonial affairs and embraced the patriot cause early.

Sherman abandoned his law practice in 1761 and moved to New Haven, Connecticut where he managed two businesses. He also became a major benefactor of Yale College. He served as treasurer of Yale for 11 years, was awarded an honorary MA degree, and became a professor of religion. His close association with Yale continued until his death.

Portrait Rebecca Prescott Sherman-Spouse of Roger Sherman — Rebecca Prescott Sherman

On 12 May 1763, Roger Sherman married Rebecca Prescott. Rebecca was born on 20 May 1742 in Salem, Massachusetts. She was the daughter of Benjamin Prescott and Rebecca Minot and descended from a long line of distinguished men and women. She was beautiful and cultured. This union resulted in eight children, seven surviving to adulthood.

Sherman had quickly become involved in New Haven politics. He was appointed justice of the peace in 1762 and judge of the court of common pleas in 1765. In 1766 he was elected to the Governor’s Council of the Connecticut General Assembly serving until 1785. He served as Justice of the Superior Court of Connecticut from 1766 to 1789.

By 1772, Sherman was wealthy enough to retire from business and devote his time to public affairs. He was appointed to the First Continental Congress, which produced the 1774 “Continental Association.” He was a signer of this document which established a boycott against Britain following the imposition of the “Intolerable Acts.”

Sherman served in the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1781 and again from 1783 to 1784. At first, many delegates laughed at his homemade clothing and lack of a wig (gentlemen wore wigs in those days), but Sherman’s words quickly won him respect. He was among the first to deny the supremacy of the British over the colonies. Sherman was a highly active and influential participant in debates, but he kept few personal records so historians must rely on what others recorded of his words and ideas.

Painting of Committee of Five to Draft Declaration of Independence -Roger Sherman — Committee of Five

On 11 June 1776, Roger Sherman was appointed to the “Committee of Five,” which drafted the Declaration of Independence. The other members were Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Robert Livingston. Jefferson wrote the first draft, and the other members of the committee critically reviewed the draft suggesting minor changes. On 28 June, after only 17 days, the document was presented to the full Continental Congress. The Declaration of Independence was passed by congress on 4 July 1776 and signing began on 2 August 1776.

Congress acted as the national government during the Revolutionary War while they also began the challenging work of establishing a new and unique form of government. After much debate they adopted the Articles of Confederation on 15 November 1777. Roger Sherman had been a major contributor to the Articles and was a signer. The Articles were ratified by the states and became the law of the land on 1 March 1781.

The Articles were a good first attempt, but soon proved to be mostly ineffective at governing the rapidly developing nation. It did not unite the states but gave them a mishmash of powers. The national congress was generally powerless. It became obvious that the Articles would have to be extensively amended to become an effective document. On 25 May 1787 what became known as the Constitutional Convention was convened in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Once again, Roger Sherman was one of the most influential members of the convention, but he did not become well-known to the public because he was a “terse and ineloquent speaker” who kept few personal records. According to other delegates he spoke often and made many motions. He was also the second oldest delegate at 66 years of age following Benjamin Franklin who was 81.

A new constitution was not what Sherman believed was needed. He was concerned that the people would be reluctant to accept a new form of government and he felt the Articles of Confederation just needed to be amended. He believed all that was really needed was a way to raise revenue, regulate commerce, and the ability to enforce decrees. He definitely wanted to retain a one-chamber (unicameral) legislature rather than two-chambers (bicameral) proposed by the “Virginia Plan.”

Sherman championed the welfare of small states such as his state of Connecticut, which was a very “isolationist” state. It successfully operated with little cooperation with other states which influenced Sherman’s opinions on governing. He believed that national government office holders should be elected by state officials because he did not believe the people possessed the wisdom to govern themselves. Sherman stated that the people “should have as little to do as may be about the Government. They want information and are constantly liable to be misled.”

During the heated debate among the Convention delegates, sectional disputes arose and were dealt with through compromise. Much debate, however, centered on the critical choice between unicameral and bicameral organization of the legislative branch. When Sherman realized that the bicameral proposal was probably going to be adopted, he began organizing compromises on the details.

By late 1787 the convention had reached a stalemate on the big questions about the make-up of a legislature and how its members would be elected. Sherman proposed a compromise that the bicameral organization be adopted and that each state legislature would elect those in the upper house, and that the number of those in the lower house would be determined by the “numbers of free inhabitants.” This proposal broke the stalemate and was accepted by the Convention. This was known as the “Connecticut Compromise.”

The final sections about the legislative branch were drafted to be acceptable to all states no matter their size. The people would be represented proportionally in one branch of the legislature called the House of Representatives. The states would be represented in another branch called the Senate with each state having two senators regardless of size. Representatives would be elected by the people and senators would be elected by state legislatures. The method of electing senators did not change until ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution on 8 April 1913.

Sherman was against giving the Executive Branch much power. He said the Executive was “nothing more than an institution for carrying the will of the Legislature into effect.” Obviously, he did not carry the day on this subject.

The use of paper money was an issue during the convention and Sherman was opposed to the use of paper. He authored Article I, Section 10 of the US Constitution, which plays a key role in the American system of federalism by limiting the power of the states. It forbids the states from printing or coining their own money. Article I also forbids the states from entering into treaties with foreign nations reserving that power to the President and Senate, and states cannot grant titles of nobility.

The establishment of the federal judicial system is obviously an especially important part of the Constitution, but my research did not find much about individual delegate input and debate. I know it must exist, but I didn’t find it. I do know that many of the delegates were lawyers, so I am sure they all had strong opinions. Also, American colonial law obviously followed British law so that would have been the starting point. Much of the delegate input concentrated on making the judicial branch independent so that it could not be used to suppress the rights of the people. Based on what I have read I believe James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, and probably Roger Sherman were the major contributors to the debate.

The convention created the federal judicial system in Article III of the Constitution. The federal system centers on the Supreme Court, which is the highest court in the nation. Lower federal courts were to be created by congress. Article III does not specify the number of supreme court justices but does create the position of Chief Justice. It also states that justices do not face term limits.

Article III empowered the Supreme Court to handle controversies concerning federal law, established the separation of powers between the three branches of government, and defined treason. It delineated judicial power and jurisdiction but did not give the Supreme Court the power of judicial review. Judicial review was added through a lawsuit heard by the Supreme Court in 1803. Article III also established that all federal crimes must be tried before a jury, which is not the case with most governments.

Painting of Signing the Constitution-Roger Sherman — Signing the Constitution

The final Constitution was signed on 17 September 1787 and was presented to the states for ratification. There was, however, considerable opposition by some states who demanded a declaration protecting individual rights. Only when James Madison pledged to draw up such amendments was the Constitution ratified on 21 June 1788.

True to his word, Madison drew up amendments and presented them to the new US Congress, which was indifferent and, in some cases, openly hostile. Sherman opposed the amendments because he thought they would diminish the power of the states over the people. This was another example of his belief that the people were incapable of governing themselves.

Congress finally accepted the proposed amendments in September 1789. The first ten amendments to the Constitution, known as the “Bill of Rights,” was ratified on 15 December 1791.

The constitutional debates were a true exercise in democracy. Each delegate had strong opinions and prejudices, but they were able to disagree, stand on principle, respect other opinions, and compromise to “form a more perfect union.”

The Convention had produced a very comprehensive Constitution, which with the addition of the Bill of Rights, established our three branches of Government, the separation of powers, set checks and balances, and delineated rights and responsibilities. It reinforced the principles and ideals of freedom found in the Declaration of Independence.

I have read the Constitution several times and am always amazed by our founders’ ability to draft such an enlightened governing document. Despite attacks on the Constitution by some it remains our guide and rule book for government and for the protection of individual rights.

An interesting side fact that demonstrated Sherman’s character and strong sense of moral beliefs is that he opposed the appointment of fellow signer Gouverneur Morris to be Minister to France. He considered the high-living fellow patriot to be of an “irreligious nature.”

After the establishment of the United States of America, Roger Sherman was elected to the House of Representatives serving from 1789 to 1791. He was elected by the Connecticut Legislature to the US Senate in 1791 and served until his death in 1793. He was concurrently serving as the first mayor of New Haven having been elected to that position in 1784.

In 1790, Roger Sherman and Richard Law were appointed to review and revise the confused and archaic Connecticut statutes. They completed that arduous task that same year.

Sherman’s health had started to deteriorate in 1776 while he was serving in the Continental Congress and he had asked the Connecticut Governor to relieve him from his state duties. Despite this relief, he maintained a very heavy workload.

Roger Sherman died in his sleep on 23 July 1793 following a two-month illness diagnosed as Typhoid Fever. He was buried in New Haven Green. In 1821, the cemetery was relocated, and his remains were moved to the Grove Street Cemetery.

Roger Sherman spent most of his life building, defending, and defining this nation. He was always one of the most vocal and persistent members of the bodies that produced the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution of the United States. Adams, Jefferson, and Madison expressed deep admiration for Sherman and his work. They found him to be stern, taciturn, spare with his words, direct in his speech, and never hesitant to stand and stand again for his principles. He also knew how to listen, negotiate, and compromise to improve outcomes.

The state of Connecticut honored Sherman by placing a statue of him in The National Statuary Hall of the US Capitol where each state is allowed only two statues. The town of Sherman, Connecticut is named after him, and the “Committee of Five” are sculpted into the pediment of the Jefferson Memorial. Although not well known, he was one of the most important and effective of our founding fathers. Roger Sherman was an American patriot and an American hero.

I want to end this post with the Preamble to the Constitution. I remember memorizing it in grade school. My teacher was Mrs. Huffman who emphasized over and over that the first three words of this document, “WE THE PEOPLE,” are unique in the world’s governments. She was a proud American and she wanted her students to be patriots. God bless Mrs. Huffman. She has been dead for many years but because of her I have never forgotten the words of the Preamble nor the importance and uniqueness of them:

“We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”

May 15, 2021May 15, 2021

Loyalists in Revolutionary America

Research as recent as 2000 has determined at the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War British Loyalists made up 15-20 percent of the total colonial population. This would seem to be a large “Fifth Column” that could rise up and join the British to defeat the revolutionaries. Prominent loyalists had in fact assured the British that most loyalists would spring to arms and fight for the Crown and the British planned accordingly. Fortunately for the Continental cause this threat never materialized with only a few thousand loyalists taking up arms. Many loyalists avoided the whole situation by leaving the American colonies. Those that remained faced economic and physical abuse so most kept a low profile hoping to weather the storm unscathed.

The number of loyalists did, however, reduce the population that the revolutionaries could count on for support. At the start of the war the free white population of the colonies is estimated to have been 2.25 million , which means there were at least 400,000 to 450,000 loyalists. Revolutionaries could at most claim only about 50 percent active popular support. Consequently, they could only rely on between one million and 1.8 million people to supply all types of support, including soldiers. Odds makers would not have predicted a successful revolution.

Historically during wars, particularly civil wars and revolutions, the population’s loyalties are divided. This often leads to terrible atrocities during hostilities and to retribution once hostilities have ended. Every war and revolution in my lifetime have experienced these problems. One thing we and others have learned the hard way is that lasting military success is unlikely if you don’t have the population’s support. Chinese revolutionary Mao Tse Tung wrote: “The guerrilla must move amongst the people as a fish swims in the sea.”

Loyalists were referred to as Tories, Royalists, and King’s Men and the revolutionaries were known as patriots. Officially, patriots referred to loyalists as “persons inimical to the liberties of America.” Loyalists came from a broad spectrum of colonists but tended to be older, and well established with strong emotional and economic ties to Britain. They feared and loathed what they saw as mob rule and chaos. Loyalists certainly were not trusted by the patriots, and the British were a little suspicious of them too. The British military did provide active protection for loyalists in areas they occupied.

Portrait of William Franklin-British Loyalist — William Franklin

Conflicting loyalties bitterly tore many families apart. The most famous was the Benjamin Franklin family. Ben’s illegitimate son, William, was the Royal Governor of New Jersey and was a vocal loyalist. William was imprisoned by the patriots and not released until 1778. He then tried to organize loyalist military units, but with little success. After the war, William fled to England and chose to be permanently estranged from Ben.

The highest concentration of loyalists was in the middle colonies: tenant farmers, Dutch, and Anglicans in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut; and Germans and Quakers in Pennsylvania. To the south the Highland Scots in the Carolinas and Presbyterians farther south. In addition, most of the Iroquois Indian tribe joined the British. New York City and Long Island were occupied by the British from 1776 to 1783 so that area contained the largest concentration of loyalists. Many of these were refugees from other states.

The British were forced out of Boston by March 1776, but they gained control of New York City and Long Island. They also controlled the Hudson River and rapidly seized control of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Savannah, Georgia; and Charleston, South Carolina. Fortunately for the Patriots, about 90 percent of the colonial population lived outside the cities. By 4 July 1776, Patriots had gained control of most of this territory and had expelled all royal officials. No one who openly proclaimed allegiance to the Crown was allowed to stay so many loyalists fled to British controlled areas or kept a very low profile. The British did manage to re-establish a Loyalist government in coastal Georgia from 1779 to 1782 despite patriot control of northern Georgia.

In 1775 the Royal Governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore offered freedom to indentured servants and slaves if they would bear arms for the Crown. Eventually about 12,000 blacks honorably served in British units. Following the war about 4,000 of these black soldiers migrated to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick in Canada where many white loyalists also settled. Life was not easy for these blacks because the promised Canadian land grants came slowly and because they were harassed by the white loyalists.

In 1791 black loyalists were offered transport to the colony of Sierra Leone in West Africa with a promise of better land and equality. About 1,200 left Nova Scotia and settled in Sierra Leone where they soon became the ruling elite.

Between 400 and 1,000 black loyalists migrated to London after the war joining a free black community of about 10,000.

Free Blacks had served in some colonial state militias prior to the Revolutionary War, and they were mustered into Continental service with their units. Many were combat veterans having fought in the French and Indian War. After considerable foot-dragging, the patriots finally began recruiting free blacks and offering freedom to slaves who would serve in the Continental Army. There are no firm numbers on the total number of blacks in the Continental Army and Navy during the war but estimates put the number at about 9,000. We do know that blacks fought valiantly next to their white counterparts. Unfortunately, many of the promises of freedom were not honored after the war and many blacks were returned to slavery.

The Continental Army and Navy were totally integrated during the Revolutionary War, but the Federal Militia Act of 1792 again denied military service to blacks. This would not be officially changed until the 1950’s when President Truman began the integration of the military by first eliminating all-black units.

The plight of loyalist women whose husbands or fathers had joined British military is often overlooked. They were left to protect their property from patriot hostility during the war without any male support. When the war ended most of their men fled to the safety of England leaving the women to fend for themselves. The main punishment for loyalists was the expropriation of property, but married women were protected since they had no legal rights except through their husbands (“feme covert”). This meant if the patriots confiscated the property of the wives, they were punishing the women for the crimes of their husbands. This moral and legal dilemma was usually ignored, and the property of most loyalist women was summarily confiscated.

Canada remained loyal to the Crown despite patriot efforts to recruit them to join the Revolution. Some did join the patriots, and some joined the British, but the numbers were not significant and had no impact on military outcomes. English settlers in Canada were mostly recent immigrants and were not interested in revolution. The older British colonists in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia remained loyal making support of the patriot cause illegal, and they took in many fleeing American loyalists. The French in Quebec were happy with British rule and did not want to ally themselves with their historical enemies, the Protestants.

The Continental Army moved against Quebec in 1775 attempting to move the Canadian border farther north away from the New England Colonies. They captured Montreal in November but were repelled at Quebec City the next month. The Continentals were completely driven out of Quebec in the spring of 1776. There would be no further serious attempts to challenge the British in Canada until the War of 1812.

Painting of Fighting Wyoming Massacre-British Loyalists and Iroquois — Fighting during Wyoming Massacre

Quebec was used as a base for raids by loyalists and Indians against American frontier communities. These communities were inhabited mostly by women, children, old people, and young boys for defense. A raid by loyalists and Iroquois Indians in July 1778, known as the Wyoming Massacre, resulted in the killing of at least 350 American settlers in the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania. Such bloody raids against civilians led to retaliation against the Iroquois after the war.

As previously noted, during the war many of the hated loyalists were subjected to confiscation of their property, public humiliation such as tarring and feathering, and physical attack. Much of this was to warn others to keep quiet and to not organize against the patriots. Two residents of Philadelphia who aided the British during the occupation of that city were tried for treason and executed.

No matter how much the civilian Loyalists were hated, it was those who actually served in the British military that earned the most vengeance. When captured by the Continental forces they were treated as traitors rather than prisoners of war. George Washington detested them saying in 1776 that “they were even higher and more insulting in their opposition than the regulars.”

Once hostilities ended the states established committees to confiscate loyalist property. Personal paybacks were common and were often very violent. Despite this, most loyalists stayed in the new nation. These loyalists tended to have strong and stable family and economic ties to the country.

Large numbers of Iroquois and other Native Americans were expelled from the country because of their active support of the British by conducting bloody raids on the frontier. Most settled in Canada where their descendants still live.

Painting of Loyalists Boarding Ships After Rev War — Loyalists Boarding Ships to Leave USA

About 60,000 Loyalists (including about 10,000 blacks) left the country. Most went to Canada where there were offers of land and compensation, but they also fled to Florida and the Caribbean Islands. About 13,000 (including about 5,000 blacks) went to Britain which also offered aid. The British exiles included many of the wealthiest and most prominent who were looking to rebuild their careers. Southern loyalists mainly migrated to areas where slavery was legal so they could take their slaves to reestablish large scale farming.

The loss of 60,000 residents, particularly those who were successful merchants and landed gentry, had some immediate negative effect on the US economy but it was short-lived because of rapid national expansion and economic development.

Public sentiment against loyalists died down significantly after the government was formed under the Constitution of the United States in 1789. Most of the early punishment and hatred of loyalists had spent itself and people turned their attention to building and expanding the country. Immigration into the country exploded and borders were being pushed westward. Opportunity was everywhere and most people wanted a piece of the action.

The concepts in the Constitution were becoming reality by the establishment of our unique government. To “help” with the development and function of the government, national political parties were established. Former loyalists were courted by the parties and became equal partners in the political development of the country.

Legally, most state laws against loyalists were repealed by 1787. Later, The War of 1812 resulted in the total ejection of the British presence in US territory and confirmed American borders. This war also served as a catalyst that brought Americans together as one united people, and the few remaining laws against former loyalists were rescinded.

New Nation - Post Loyalist Integration — USA

Despite the initial intense hatred between loyalists and patriots, the people eventually assimilated all political beliefs and became one people, Americans. This ability to absorb different nationalities, ideas, and races is uniquely American and is one of the great strengths of our country. Americans are proud of their ethnic heritages but are not ruled nor identified by them. We are all: “We the people of the United States of America.” We do not intend to ever allow this to change.

February 14, 2021April 11, 2021

Stephen Hopkins-Respected Hero13

Stephen Hopkins and Declaration of Independence Signature — Stephen Hopkins

Stephen Hopkins of Rhode Island is not one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence whose name stands out. He was, however, a man that was exceptional. He was a member of a very prominent family that had been involved in Rhode Island politics since the time of founder Roger Williams. Stephen was his own man and was a colonial governor, educator, judge, merchant ship owner, surveyor, patriot, and American hero.

Stephen Hopkins was born on 7 March 1707 in Providence, Colony of Rhode Island. He was the second of nine children of William and Ruth (Wilkinson) Hopkins. Both of his parents came from families that were early settlers of New England and who became successful and prominent colonial citizens.

Hopkins grew up on a farm in an area of Rhode Island that had no schools. His mother was his first teacher, and his grandfather and uncle taught him basic mathematics and surveying. He was a voracious reader using his grandfather’s excellent library, which was supplemented by a small circulating collection. Although he had little if any formal education, he became truly knowledgeable in literature, mathematics, surveying, and the sciences.

Because of Stephen’s youthful responsibility, his father gave him 70 acres of land in 1726 and his grandfather gave him another 90 acres. On 9 October 1726, he married Sarah Scott. Both were only 19 years old. Sarah was also from a prominent New England family. This union produced seven children, five living to maturity.

At the age of 23, Hopkins began his political activities by serving in several local positions in the newly formed town of Scituate. His career began as justice of the peace in 1730. He eventually represented the town in the General Assembly serving from 1732 to 1741. He was named Speaker in his last year.

About 1740 Stephen joined his brother Esek Hopkins in commercial ventures and in 1742 moved his residence to Providence. They established a mercantile-shipping firm and constructed and outfitted sea-going merchant vessels. Stephen was also part owner of a privateer, the Reprisal. He was the primary force behind the transformation of Providence from a small, muddy village to a thriving commercial center, and he was instrumental in establishing Rhode Island’s final borders.

Later in life Stephen partnered with the Brown brothers Moses, Nicholas, Joseph, and John in 1766 to establish Hope Furnace near Scituate. This iron works produced pig iron and cast cannon for the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. Stephen’s son Rufus managed this business for 40 years.

Hopkins stayed politically active in his new home. He represented Providence in the General Assembly from 1744 to 1751 and was assistant justice of the Rhode Island Superior Court from 1747 to 1749. He became Chief Justice in 1751.

Sadly, Sarah Hopkins died on 9 September 1753 at 43 years old.

Always interested in education, Hopkins helped establish a public subscription library and Rhode Island College in 1754. He was the first chancellor of the college, which later became Brown University. He helped found the Providence Gazette and Country Journal in 1762, and was a member of the American Philosophical of Newport. His interest in science led him to become involved in erecting an observatory in Providence for observations of the transit of Venus over the sun. That event occurred in June 1769, and they used the observations to establish the exact geodetic location of Providence.

Hopkins was a delegate to the Albany Congress (Albany, New York) in 1754. This congress was attended by only seven colonies to discuss relations with Native Americans and to prepare for the impending war with France. This is where Hopkins first met Benjamin Franklin who was pushing his “Albany Plan” for uniting the colonies. This plan was rejected by the colonies and Britain. During the congress Franklin and Hopkins became friends and 22 years later were the two oldest signers of the Declaration of Independence.

Stephen Hopkins married Anne Smith, a 38-year-old widow with three children in 1755. Anne and Stephen had no children together.

Stephen was elected governor of Rhode Island in 1755 and was re-elected to this one-year-term office several times through 1766. The most pressing situation through much of this time was the French and Indian War (1754-1763). Many Colonists, including Rhode Islanders served in this brutal and very bloody war which ended in a British victory. A benefit of this war was that it prepared many colonial officers and men to eventually fight the British.

Samuel Ward Governor of RI-Stephen Hopkins Opponent — Samuel Ward

Hopkins’ opponent in most campaigns for governor was Samuel Ward who was also a capable and patriotic man. The two men disagreed on the hot topic of hard currency or specie use versus the use of paper money. Hopkins favored paper money. Their competition became so bitter and personal that it distracted from the issues and in 1768 they agreed to stand-down, and to back a compromise candidate. After the election, the two men met and became life-long friends.

Unrest and actions against the Crown were increasing During the 1760’s. Rebellion was in the air. After passage of the hated Stamp Act, Hopkins wrote the pamphlet “The Rights of Colonies Examined.” This pamphlet was published in 1764 and he wrote: “British subjects are to be governed only agreeable to laws which they themselves have in some way consented.” This predated John Dickinson’s more widely distributed “Letters From a Farmer” by three years. Publication of the pamphlet established Hopkins as a leader of public opinion in all the colonies.

In 1768, a ship owned by John Hancock was seized and recommissioned into the British Navy as the Gaspee. This vessel was sent to Newport, Rhode Island where it was used to stop and search merchant vessels for “contraband.” The Gaspee was burned in 1769 by an angry mob of colonials. Royal Governor Wanton was ordered to arrest those involved and to send them to England for trial. However, Rhode Island Superior Court Chief Justice Stephen Hopkins stated he would not enforce the order and would not allow his officers to enforce it.

Hopkins and Samuel Ward were selected to represent Rhode Island at the First Continental Congress in 1774. On the floor of that body, Hopkins made a very bold statement about the situation with the British: “powder and ball will decide this question. The gun and bayonet alone will finish the contest in which we are engaged, and any of you who cannot bring your minds to this mode of adjusting this question had better retire in time.” This statement must have sent chills up the spines of those who wanted to negotiate.

Esek Hopkins First Commander Continental Navy — Commodore Esek Hopkins

In July 1775, Hopkins did sign the Olive Branch Petition to the King which sought a peaceful resolution of the grievances. Of course, this petition was rejected by the Crown. This congressional session also established a Continental Navy and Hopkins arranged for his brother Esek to become the first commander in chief of the Navy.

Stephen Hopkins voted to approve the Declaration of Independence on 4 July 1776 and signed the document on 2 August. He suffered from “shaking palsy” which resulted in his signature appearing unsteady. He used his left hand to help steady his right and he stated: “My hand trembles, but my heart does not.” His long history of fighting palsy had already caused him to hire a clerk to write for him.

The Congress established a 13-member committee (one from each state) to draft a constitution for the new country. Hopkins was selected to represent Rhode Island. However, the elderly Hopkins resigned due to failing health and returned to Rhode Island in September 1776. Congress approved the final draft of the Articles of Confederation on 15 November 1777.

Stephen Hopkins Grave-North Burying Ground, Providence, RI — Stephen Hopkins Grave-Providence, RI

Hopkins Managed to be an active member of Rhode Island’s general assembly until 1779. He died on 13 July 1785 at the age of 78 and was buried in the North Burying Ground at Providence. His funeral was attended by a large assembly, including President of the Confederation Richard Henry Lee, court judges, college professors and students, and common citizens.

Stephen Hopkins has been honored in many ways by many people and he left a legacy of long and honorable service to his country. He participated in the founding of the United States of America. Being self-educated he knew the value of education and helped to establish libraries and a college. The real measure of the man is that most of his contemporaries respected him:

Future United States President John Adams appreciated Hopkins’ contributions during the congressional sessions, writing:

“… Governor Hopkins of Rhode Island, above seventy Years of Age kept us all alive. Upon Business his Experience and judgment were very Useful. But when the Business of the Evening was over, he kept Us in Conversation till Eleven and sometimes twelve O Clock. His Custom was to drink nothing all day nor till Eight O Clock, in the Evening, and then his Beveredge was Jamaica Spirit and Water. It gave him Wit, Humour, Anecdotes, Science and Learning. He had read Greek, Roman and British History: and was familiar with English Poetry particularly Pope, Tompson and Milton. And the flow of his Soul made all his reading our own, and seemed to bring to recollection in all of Us all We had ever read. I could neither eat nor drink in those days. The other Gentlemen were very temperate. Hopkins never drank to excess, but all he drank was immediately not only converted into Wit, Sense, Knowledge and good humour, but inspired Us all with similar qualities.”

In his diary, the Reverend Ezra Stiles wrote of Hopkins,

“I well knew Gov. Hopkins. He was a man of penetrating astutious [sic] Genius, full of Subtlety, deep Cunning, intriguing & enterprizing…” adding that he was a “man of a Noble fortitude & resolution” and “a glorious Patriot!”

There is nothing else that I can add except that Stephen Hopkins is a man that should be better known. He was a true patriot and an American hero.

December 31, 2020April 11, 2021

George Read, Reluctant Hero12

George Read is another founding father that is not widely known and one who became a revolutionary despite himself. Representing Delaware, he favored reconciliation with the Crown rather than independence. He had signed the Petition to the King in 1774 but voted against the Declaration of Independence in 1776. He did, however, sign the Declaration, and later the Constitution being one of only two who signed all three of these documents. Once independence became the cause of the colonies, Read embraced the movement and served in both federal and state positions for most of the rest of his life. He was truly a patriot and reluctant hero.

The eldest of six sons of John and Mary (Howell) Read, George Read was born on 18 September 1733 in Cecil County, Maryland. John Read was a prosperous planter and developer in Maryland and Delaware. He also was one of the founders of Charlestown, Maryland. Soon after George’s birth, the family relocated to a large plantation at Christiana, Delaware near New Castle.

George attended exclusive schools in Pennsylvania and at the age of 15 began reading law with John Moland in Philadelphia. He was admitted to the Philadelphia Bar in 1753. At this point, George Read showed great generosity to his siblings. As the eldest son of John Read, he was entitled to two shares of his father’s estate, but he gave up his inheritance by transferring it to his brothers. He explained that his education was his proper portion. George Read was known for generosity, dignity, and kindness throughout his life.

In 1754 George set up his own law practice in New Castle and rapidly became a successful and respected attorney with clients in both Delaware and Maryland. In 1763 he married Gertrude Ross Till. She was the daughter of Reverend George Ross, Rector of Immanuel Episcopal Church, and the widowed sister of George Ross who like Read was a future signer of the Declaration of Independence. The union of George and Gertrude produced four sons and one daughter.

Read was appointed Crown Attorney General for three Delaware counties in 1763. In 1765 he began service in the Delaware Colonial Legislature. Despite his apparent loyalty to the Crown, he was opposed to the new British taxes and other provocative actions. This led to his joining, and leading the resistance group, the Delaware Committee of Correspondence. He became active in the patriot movement, but he continued to strongly advocate for reconciliation with the Crown. In 1774 George Read was elected as a Delaware representative to the first and second Continental Congresses.

In the 18^th century, the Colony of Delaware was divided into two loose factions, the “Court Party” and the “Country Party.” The Court Party was the majority. It was generally Anglican, worked well with the colonial government, and favored reconciliation with the British. The minority Country Party was mostly Ulster-Scot who hated the British and openly advocated for independence. Read was one of the leaders of the Court Party and worked in opposition to some of his friends and neighbors who were pro-independence.

Portrait of Richard Henry Lee — Richard Henry Lee

Read’s attendance during the proceedings of the first and second Continental Congresses was irregular, but when he did attend, he advocated for caution and reconciliation. He was distrustful of what he believed was “extremism” and believed Richard Henry Lee’s resolution for independence to be hasty and ill-advised. He felt the colonies were unprepared for the war that would follow, and his natural inclination was to be cautious and to negotiate.

On 2 July 1776, George Read voted against independence believing reconciliation was still possible. This caused a crisis and a pro-independence Delaware delegate, Ceasor Rodney, had to ride all night to reach Philadelphia to break the stalemate in the state’s delegation. When it was apparent that the Declaration of Independence had wide support, Read signed the document in a show of unity, as Robert Morris of Maryland also did. Both men then embraced the cause of independence and became true supporters of revolution.

Two of George Read’s brothers served in the military. Brother Thomas was an officer in the Continental Navy, and James was an officer in the Continental Army. Revolution was a Read family affair.

Later in 1776, George Read turned his attention to state responsibilities and presided over the Delaware Constitutional Convention. He chaired the drafting committee, which composed the 1776 Delaware Constitution. He also began a term as Speaker of the Legislative Council, which made him vice president of the state.

The British occupied Wilmington, Delaware in the fall of 1776 and captured the president of the state. George Read was in Philadelphia attending the Continental Congress. In November he and his family were nearly captured by the British as they escaped Philadelphia while it was being occupied by the Redcoats. Once safely reaching Dover, Delaware, Read assumed the office of president, a position he held until spring of 1778.

During the Legislative Council of 1779 Read drafted the act directing the Delaware Continental congressional delegates to sign the Articles of Confederation. That same year he had to resign from the council due to poor health and refused reelection to congress. By 1782 he was again on the council, and concurrently served as judge of the Court of Appeals in admiralty cases.

In 1784 Read served on a commission that adjusted New York-Massachusetts land claims. In 1786 he attended the Annapolis Convention (A precursor to the Constitutional Convention). He also was a Delaware delegate to the Constitutional Convention.

Painting of Signing The Constitution by Howard C. Christy — Christy Painting of Signing The Constitution

At the convention, Read adopted a Hamiltonian stance championing a strong federal government, and a strong executive. He was also very outspoken and concerned about the rights of the smaller states. At one point Read threatened to take the smaller states out of the convention unless their rights were protected in the new Constitution. The new Constitution addressed his concerns, and on 17 September 1787, George Read signed the Constitution of the United States of America. He then led the ratification movement in Delaware, the first state to ratify.

I am including a description of George Read that was done during the Constitutional Convention that is interesting considering he was an effective delegate:

“George Read (Delaware) is a Lawyer and a Judge;–his legal abilities are said to be very great, but his powers of Oratory are fatiguing and tiresome to the last degree;–his voice is feeble, and his articulation so bad that few can have patience to attend to him. He is a very good Man, and bears an amiable character with those who know him. Mr. Read is about 50, of a low stature, and a weak constitution.” — Character Sketches of Delegates to the Federal Convention by William Pierce (1787)

Photo George Read Grave, New Castle, DE — George Read Grave

Read was a US Senator from Delaware from 1789 to 1793 where his attendance was again erratic. When he did attend, he was a staunch supporter of President Washington, and aligned himself with the Federalists. He resigned the Senate to accept the position of Chief Justice of Delaware, a position he held until his death on 21 September 1798. George Read was buried in the Immanuel Episcopal Churchyard in New Castle, Delaware.

George Read led a busy life of service to his state and country that began during Colonial times. Although not well known now, he was during his life and he was respected by all who knew him. He was a cautious man, not a “firebrand,” but he actively participated in the birth of our country. He was not a famous general nor a charismatic politician, but he was the kind of man who toiled effectively to build a “more perfect union.” We owe a debt of gratitude to men like George Read who did not seek fame or fortune. He was definitely a patriot and an American hero.